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 Re: أقرأتم قول كبج (Re: Esameldin Abdelrahman)
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شكرا تيراب
أقدم لك جزء من ورقة قديمة كتبتها منذ زمن بعيد عن الموضوع
The Paradox of Uneven Development
One important element in the colonial legacy that has continued is the uneven development of the different Sudanese regions. This was not only an economic problem, but it was, (and still is ), the major element in the political instability and the unstable state in the Sudan.
Uneven development was a result of the rigid articulation of modes of production inherited from the colonial era and preserved by the post-colonial state. Uneven development in the Sudan is an expression of the local division of labour, albeit dependent on and linked to the international division of labour as has been argued elswhere (Kaballo, 1994, Chapter 2.)
It was just logical for the market forces to deepen the uneven distribution of private investment, for capital tends to seek areas of high average rate of profit (or high marginal efficiency of capital in Keynsian terminology). Government intervention was not enough to upset this general trend. Its intervention took two measures: the first was the encouragement of private sector to invest in the most undeveloped areas, especially through the investment laws; while the second was direct government investment. Except for the investment in mechanised agriculture, the first measure failed to attract private investment outside the triangle area of Khartoum-Kosti- Sennar, where most of the infra-structure and public utilities were concentrated. Though mechanised agriculture did contribute in generating extra income by providing seasonal work opportunities, its effects on the environment, the peasant agriculture, the availability of pastures for pasturalists were negative. Many empirical studies have argued that surpluses generated by mechanised agriculture were transferred to urban areas and to the Khartoum-Kosti-Sennar triangle (See Affan, 197 . The direct government investment was mainly limited to social services and public utilities. There are some other isolated government projects (Wau Fruit and Vegetable Canning Factory, Babanosa Milk Dehydration Factory, and the Textile factories in Nyala in Darfur, and Kadogli in the Nuba Mountains) which did not constitute part of a comprehensive rural or regional development strategy. Both the central government the regional governments did not draft such a strategy. The central government was motivated by the interests of the class groups that constituted the power bloc which dominated it since independence. The regional governments, on the other hand, represented the interests of a rising regional bourgeoisie group and some neo-petty-bourgeoisie groups who only thought of replacing their rivals from central Sudan.
The Ten Years Plan of 1961/62-70/71 was the best expression of the policies of the central government. Its strategy was built on extending the economic structures of production, not changing them. The designer of the plan described that as the strategy,
"...to develop the country through the expansion of the already developed centres ....to concentrate the resources of the country on an improvement and expansion of the modern part of the economy rather than an equal rise in the modern and traditional parts."(Mirghani:1983, 39)
A logical result of such policy was a higher growth rate and better incomes and services in the relatively developed areas of central Sudan than other parts of the country, especially the most underdeveloped South and Western Sudan.
Characteristics of Uneven Development
Uneven developed in the Sudan has been reflected in three main characteristics:
a) the uneven development of the forces of production,
b) the uneven development of social services (especially education and health) and
c) the other infrastructure and public utilities which are necessary for the development of both social services and productive forces ( transport and communication, electricity and water)
Uneven Development of the Forces of Production
The most important symptom of uneven development in the Sudan was the uneven development of the forces of production. Agricultural producers in the less developed areas (despite the production relations that governed their production) were still by 1985 using primitive tools and means of production (no irrigation facilities and complete dependency on rain fall, no modern agricultural equipment, no use of modern fertilizers or chemicals, absence of agricultural research and instruction ... etc). This resulted in a low crop yields. This is shown in table 27. The yields of dura in the less developed areas amounted to 54% of the yields per feddan in the most developed areas. Groundnuts yields amounted to 25.2% and those of sesame were 73.4% of the respective yields per feddan in the most developed areas
Table 1. Yields per Feddan for Three Main Crops in the Sudan (Average of 1975/76-1984/85 in Kg (feddan)
area Dura Groundnuts Sesame
Less developed areas* 238.9 203.1 92.4
Most Developed areas** 442.4 807.1 125.8
All Sudan average 272.7 321.3 101.6
Note: *The less developed areas are defined here as the non-mechanised rainfed agriculture
**The most developed areas are defined as the irrigated and the mechanised rainfed agriculture
Source: Calculated from: Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, (1984), Sudan Year Book of Agricultural Statistics, 1984.
In industry the discrepancy in the forces of production could be shown by the relative distribution of industrial establishments, their fixed assets, production, contribution to value added, number of workers and the salaries and wages they paid. Table 28 shows the relevant data on that. The Khartoum-Kosti-Sennar triangle is taken as the most developed areas, while the rest of the country is defined as less developed.
It is clear from table 28 that industry in 1981/82 was concentrated in the Khartoum-Kosti-Sennar triangle . The discrepancy in the level of the development of forces of production is shown by the fact that although the less developed areas had 43.6% of the total number of industrial establishment they employ 20.1% of the industrial labour force and paid 19.1% of the industrial wage bill, produced 23.4% of the total industrial production and 29.8% of the value added. Their of the fixed assets was only 20.7%, most of it located in Port Sudan and Kassala towns of the Eastern Region.
Table 2. Uneven Development of Industry in the Sudan 1981/82 (%)
Area No. of establishments No of Workers Salaries and Wages Total Production Value Added Fixed Assets
Khartoum-Kosti-Sennar Triangle 56.4% 79% 80.9% 76.6% 70.2% 79.2%
The rest of the Sudan 43.6% 21% 19.1% 23.4% 29.8% 20.7%*
Note: * Of this 16% were located in the Eastern Region (mainly in Port Sudan and Kassala) and the remaining 4% is located in the other regions of the Sudan
Source: Ministry of Industry: Industrial Survey of 1981/82, Khartoum.
Uneven Development of Social Services and Infrastructure:
Education Services
The discrepancy in the distribution of education services throughout Sudan could be shown by comparing the number of pupils in general education in every region as percentage of the total number of pupils in the country with the size of the population of that region as percentage of the total population in the Sudan. Table 29 shows the percentage distribution of pupils and teachers in the different Sudanese region in 1983.
While only 8.8% of the population of the Sudan lived in Khartoum in 1983, Khartoum had 15.7% of the primary schools pupils in the country. It had 22.5% of the intermediate schools pupils, 27% of the academic and technical schools pupils and 9.7% of the teachers institutes students. The Central Region share in education service was also greater than its relative size of population. While its population constituted 20.5% of the population in Sudan it had 30.3% of primary school pupils, 30% of intermediate schools pupils, 28.4 of academic secondary schools students, 33% of the technical secondary schools and 20.9% of the teachers institutes students.
Table 3. The Distribution of Population, Pupils and Teachers in the Different Regions in the Sudan (in percentage, 1983)
Regions Population Primary Intermediate Secondary Academic Secondary Technical Teachers Institutes
Northern 5.4 11.0 14.5 13.5 8.8 14.7
Eastern 10.7 9.6 8.7 8.3 13.4 10.8
Northern and Eastern 18.1 20.6 23.2 21.8 22.2 25.5
Central 20.4 30.3 30.0 28.4 33.0 20.8
Khartoum 8.8 15.7 22.5 27.0 27.1 9.7
Central and Khartoum 29.2 36.0 52.5 55.4 60.1 30.6
Kordofan 15.0 10.8 9.8 8.7 4.8 9.1
Darfur 15.0 13.1 7.1 5.2 7.5 15.9
Equatoria 6.8 5.7 4.2 4.6 3.8 7.7
Bahar el Gazal 11.1 1.3 1.5 2.2 1.5 11.1
Upper Nile 7.8 2.3 1.8 2.1 -- ---
Less Developed 55.7 33.2 24.4 22.8 17.2 43.8
Source:1) Department of Statistics, Population Census 1983 (unpublished). 2) Ministry of Education and Instruction, (1985), Educational Statistics 1984/85, Khartoum.
If the figures for Kordofan, Darfur and the Southern Regions are together compared with those of Khartoum and Central Region, the disparity in the distribution of education services will be clearly apparent. The less developed region was the home for 55.7% of the population. It had 33.2%, 44.4%, 22.8% 17.6% and 43.8% of the pupils and students in primary, intermediate, academic secondary, technical secondary schools and teachers institutes respectively, compared with 465, 52.5%. 55.4%, 60.1% and 9.1% for Khartoum and the Central Region together where only 29.2% of the population where living.
The comparison of the less developed areas with the Northern Region raises directly the question of the regional and ethnic composition of the ruling classes in the Sudan. The Northern Region had more pupils and students than its relative size of population. This has no explanation except that the ruling classes who predominantly of Northern regional original favoured their areas in allocating educational services.
The uneven distribution of general university services was reflected in the higher education. Students from Khartoum, Central and Northern regions continued to dominate the annual intake in higher education. They represented about 70% of the University of Khartoum annual intake for the years 1979/80-1984/85, while students from Kordofan and Darfur regions represented 12% on average during the same period Al Maidan, 18 December 1988, 6).
Health Services
the disparity in the distribution of health services could be looked at by evaluating five indicators: the number of persons per doctor, per hospital bed, per specialist doctor, and per nurse; and the number of hospital beds per doctor. Table 29 shows these indicators in the different Sudanese regions.
Table 4. ndicators of the Distribution of Health Services in the Different Sudanese Regions
Region Persons/ Doctor Persons/ Hospital bed persons per Specialist doctor Persons/ nurse Hospital bed / Doctor
Khartoum 1367 484 5474 456 2
Eastern 9324 945 41928 1421 9
Northern 9783 654 30500 864 14
Central 14643 1156 67360 1445 12
Kordofan 19585 1449 89222 1196 13
Darfur 49600 2591 16047 2871 19
Southern 42739 1023 173333 2977 41
Sudan 8861 1035 33707 1298 7
Source: Calculated from: Ministry of Health, (1982), Annual Health Statistical Report, Khartoum 1982.
In 1982 there 1,367 person per doctor in Khartoum, while there were 19,585 persons/ doctor in Kordofan and 49,600 persons/ doctor in Darfur and 42,739 persons/ doctor in the Southern Region. While there were one hospital bed for every 484 persons in Khartoum, the ratio was a bed for 1449 in Kordofan, 2491 persons in Darfur, and 1023 persons in the Southern Region. there were two bed per doctor in Khartoum, 13 beds per doctor in Kordofan , 14 bed per doctor in Darfur and 41 bed per doctor in the Southern Region. The indicators of persons per specialised doctor and per nurse confirm the same trend of uneven distribution of health services. There was a specialist doctor for every 5,474 persons in Khartoum. The indicator for Kordofan was 17 time higher (89 thousand persons per specialised doctor), in Darfur 32 times higher, (160 thousand persons per specialised doctor) and in the Southern Region 34 times higher (173 thousand persons per specialised doctor). There was a nurse per 456 persons in Khartoum, 1,196 persons in Kordofan, 2,871 persons in Darfur and 2, 977 persons in the Southern Region.
Other Infrastructure
The National Electricity Grid is concentrated in the Khartoum-Kosti-sennar triangle. Except for the Eastern Grid which distributes Khasham al-Girba Dam electricity to New Halfa and Kassala towns, the other urban parts of the Sudan depended on local disel generated electricity. Most of the regional thermal stations suffer problems of shortage of diesel oil and spare-parts supply.
Darfur and Kordofan Regions suffer from continuous shortage in water supply.
Until 1985, out of eleven modern roads built to connect the main Sudanese towns only three were in the less developed area. The total length of modern road built between 1973 and 1985 was 2,148 kilometres, of them only 401 kilometres were in Kordofan and Darfur.
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| العنوان |
الكاتب |
Date |
| أقرأتم قول كبج | Mohammed Tirab | 09-18-04, 10:30 AM |
| Re: أقرأتم قول كبج | Ahmed Elmardi | 09-18-04, 11:26 AM |
| Re: أقرأتم قول كبج | Mohammed Tirab | 09-19-04, 08:33 AM |
| Re: أقرأتم قول كبج | Mohammed Tirab | 09-19-04, 08:37 AM |
| Re: أقرأتم قول كبج | abdalla BABIKER | 09-19-04, 08:35 AM |
| Re: أقرأتم قول كبج | Mohammed Tirab | 09-19-04, 08:40 AM |
 Re: أقرأتم قول كبج | Mohammed Tirab | 09-19-04, 11:06 AM |
| Re: أقرأتم قول كبج | Esameldin Abdelrahman | 09-19-04, 12:26 PM |
| Re: أقرأتم قول كبج | Sidgi Kaballo | 09-19-04, 03:54 PM |
| قراتم | mohmmed said ahmed | 09-19-04, 11:59 PM |
| Re: قراتم | hamid hajer | 09-20-04, 00:26 AM |
| Re: قراتم | Mohammed Tirab | 09-20-04, 05:26 AM |
| Re: قراتم | إيمان أحمد | 09-20-04, 07:06 AM |
| Re: قراتم | Mohammed Tirab | 09-21-04, 08:05 AM |
 Re: قراتم | Mohammed Tirab | 09-21-04, 08:01 AM |
| Re: قراتم | Mohammed Tirab | 09-25-04, 03:46 AM |
| Re: أقرأتم قول كبج | Raja | 09-20-04, 07:32 AM |
| Re: أقرأتم قول كبج | Mohammed Tirab | 09-21-04, 08:32 AM |
| Thanks | MISBAH | 09-20-04, 08:43 AM |
| Re: Thanks | Mohammed Tirab | 09-23-04, 03:06 AM |
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Sidgi Kaballo
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