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 Somalia
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Somalia
Preface
Like its predecessor, this study is an attempt to treat in a concise and objective manner the dominant historical, social, political, economic, and military aspects of contemporary Somali society. Sources of information included scholarly journals and monographs, official reports of government and international organizations, newspapers, and numerous periodicals. Chapter bibliographies appear at the end of the book; brief comments on some of the more valuable sources suggested as possible further reading appear at the end of each chapter. Measurements are given in the metric system; a conversion table is provided to assist those readers who are unfamiliar with metric measurements (see table 1, Appendix). A glossary is also included.
Place-names generally have been spelled in accordance with those established by the United States Board on Geographic Names and the Permanent Committee on Geographic Names for British Official Use, known as the BGN/PCGN system. The spelling of other proper names conforms to the current usage in the country or to the most authoritative available sources.
Because Somalia has been in a state of virtual anarchy since the fall of the regime of Mahammad Siad Barre in January 1991 (and, actually, to a considerable degree since the outbreak of civil war in the latter 1980s), the lack of functioning government institutions has meant that statistics tend to be unreliable or nonexistent. Therefore, statistics cited in the text or tables in the appendix should be viewed with caution.
The arrival of United States military forces in Somalia as part of Operation Restore Hope in the latter part of 1992, together with forces from other United Nations member states, has resulted in detailed Western press coverage of Somalia. However, much background data continued to be lacking.
The body of the text reflects information available as of mid-1992. Certain other portions of the text, however, have been updated. The Introduction discusses significant events that have occurred since the completion of research, the Country Profile includes updated information as available, and the Bibliography includes recently published help feel to the reader.
http://www.somalinet.com/
فرانكلي
_____ أتق الله حيث ما كنت واتبع السيئة الحسنة تمحها وخالق الناس بخلق حسن
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Re: Somalia-SOCIETY (Re: Frankly)
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SOCIETY
Population: Estimates vary; United Nations 1991 estimate shows population of 7.7 million not including Ethiopian refugees but other estimates place at 8.4 million in mid-1990. Until early 1990s, predominantly nomadic pastoralisto and seminomadic herders made up about three-fifths of total; cultivators about one-fifth; town dwellers (vast majority in Mogadishu) about one-fifth. Pattern of residency dramatically altered by civil war in late 1980s onward, raising urban population of Mogadishu to 2 million.
Languages: Somali (script officially introduced January 1973) predominates. Several dialects; Common Somali most widely used; Coastal Somali spoken on the Banaadir Coast; Central Somali spoken in the interriverine area. English and Italian used by relatively small proportion (less than 10 percent) of urban population. Somali and Italian used at university level; Somali used at all school levels below university. Arabic used in religious contexts. Indigenous languages include various dialects of Afar and Boni.
Ethnic Groups: Overwhelming majority of nationals ethnic Somalis; and two agricultural clan-families (Digil and Rahanwayn). In 1991 centralized state disintegrated into its constituent lineages and clans.
Religion: Former Somali state officially Islamic; overwhelming majority of nationals Sunni Muslims (less than 1 percent Christian). Activist Islamism increasing in some areas.
Education and Literacy: Until 1991 modern public education offered free at all levels; nationally owned educational facilities closed after collapse of Somali state; school attendance grew rapidly in settled areas in 1970s; primary education extended to nomadic children in early 1980s. Literacy campaigns resulted in substantial increases in 1970s but less than government's estimate of 60 percent, with relapse among nomads by 1977; United Nations estimate shows 24 percent literacy rate in 1990.
Health: Improvement in numbers of health care personnel and facilities during 1970s offset by civil war, refugee burden, and failure to expand services beyond urban areas; weak modern medical infrastructure deteriorated dramatically after 1991 collapse of central government. High incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis, malaria, tetanus, parasitic and venereal infections, leprosy, and a variety of skin and eye ailments; relatively low incidence of human immunovirus (HIV) (less than 1 percent) through 1992; general health severely affected by widespread malnutrition and famine in 1992.
http://www.somalinet.com/
فرانكلي
_____ أتق الله حيث ما كنت واتبع السيئة الحسنة تمحها وخالق الناس بخلق حسن
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Re: Somalia-ECONOMY (Re: Frankly)
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ECONOMY
Salient Features: Formerly socialist-oriented economy undergoing market-oriented structural adjustment until 1991. Stabilization and macroeconomic adjustment programs implemented during 1980s under auspices of international credit and aid agencies. Privatization of wholesale trade and financial sectors largely complete by 1991; economic growth sporadic and uneven across sectors. Most economic activity disrupted by breakdown of Somali state in 1991.
Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry, and Fisheries: Crop and livestock production, forestry, and fisheries, accounted for bulk of gross domestic product (GDP) in 1991; livestock predominant agricultural export, also important source of animal products (mostly milk) for internal markets and subsistence. Crop cultivation dominated by rural subsistence sector, which generated sufficient surpluses to sustain domestic informal markets and barter economy until 1990. Main crops: sorghum, corn; incipient production of mild narcotic qat suppressed by central government during mid-1980s. Small plantation sector dedicated primarily to export of bananas and sugarcane. Domestic grain supply supplemented by international food aid. Small forestry sector dominated by production for export of frankincense and myrrh. Fisheries production showed modest growth during 1980s but remained minor economic activity. Agricultural activity severely curtailed as result of drought and breakdown of Somali state in 1991.
Mining: Mining contribution to GDP negligible (.3 percent of GDP in 198 despite substantial deposits of gypsumanhydrite , quartz and piezoquartz, uranium, and iron ore. Meerschaum sepiolite mined; gold deposits suspected but not confirmed.
Manufacturing: Small manufacturing sector, based primarily on processing of agricultural products, consisted of few large state enterprises, hundreds of medium-sized private firms, and thousands of small-scale informal operations. Largescale enterprises dedicated mainly to processing of sugar, milk, and hides and skins. Overall manufacturing output declined during 1980s as result of failure of inefficient state enterprises under market conditions. Manufacturing activity further curtailed by civil war and collapse of Somali state. By 1990 manufacturing ceased to play significant role in economy (about 5 percent of GDP).
Energy: Domestic wood, charcoal, and imported petroleum provided basic sources of energy; significant hydroelectric potential of Jubba River remained unexploited; four small-scale wind turbine generators operated in Mogadishu. Prior to civil war, eighty state-owned oil-fired and diesel power plants provided electricity to cities and towns. Refining capacity limited to one refinery. Foreign oil supplies erratic throughout 1980s. United Nations Development Programme hydrocarbon study in 1991 indicated good potential for oil and gas deposits in northern Somalia.
Foreign Trade: Exports consisted of agricultural raw materials and food products. Livestock and bananas principal exports, followed by hides and skins, fish and fish products, and myrrh. Trade balance remained negative throughout 1980s and early 1990s. Principal imports in descending order: food, transportation equipment, nonelectrical machinery, cement and building materials, and iron and steel. Italy and Arab states main destinations of exports; Italy main country of origin for imported Somali goods in 1990; other minor suppliers included Norway, Bahrain, and Britain.
Currency: Somali shilling. During 1980s currency alternated between fixed and floating rates; as of March 31, 1992, US$1 equaled 3,800 shillings.
http://www.somalinet.com/
فرانكلي
_____ أتق الله حيث ما كنت واتبع السيئة الحسنة تمحها وخالق الناس بخلق حسن
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Re: Somalia-GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS (Re: Frankly)
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GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
Government Structure: Country nominally under interim provisional government established by Executive Committee of United Somali Congress (USC) and headed by provisional president Ali Mahdi Mahammad after fall of Mahammad Siad Barre. As of September 1991, country effectively under control of as many as twelve rival clans and subclans. Central government authority at Mogadishu challenged by Somali National Movement (SNM), which in June 1991 declared independent Republic of Somaliland in former territory of British Somaliland. Constitution of 1979 nominally in force pending new constitution proposed by provisional government. Constitutionally mandated national legislature known as People's Assembly inactive since January 1991.
Administrative Divisions: Prior to fall of Siad Barre regime in January 1991, sixteen administrative regions, each containing three to six districts, with exception of capital region which was subdivided into fifteen districts, for total of eighty-four districts. Local government authority vested in regional and district councils whose members were elected, but whose candidature approved by district-level government. High level of military participation in regional and district councils. Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development exercised authority over structure of local government. From 1991 onward, no effective government organization existed.
Politics: During 1980s authoritarian regime of President Mahammad Siad Barre abandoned policy of scientific socialism on Marxist-Leninist lines and implemented marketoriented structural reforms of economy, while consolidating personal political authority. Broad-based national opposition met escalating government repression and provoked armed revolt in 1988 led by USC and SNM. Civil war caused eventual defeat of government forces and exile of Siad Barre in January 1991. USC faction led by General Mahammad Faarah Aidid contested authority of USC Executive Committee to form interim government and established rival government in southern Mogadishu, compelling Mahammad's government to retreat to northern Mogadishu. As of January 1993, country effectively fragmented under control of as many as twelve contending clan-families and clans.
Judicial System: Four-tier court system--Supreme Court, courts of appeal, regional courts, and district courts--based on Western models. Separate National Security Courts operating outside ordinary legal system and under direct control of executive given broad jurisdiction over offenses defined by government as affecting state security, until abolished in October 1990. Unified penal and civil law codes introduced in late 1960s and early 1970s, but some features of Islamic law considered in civil matters.
Foreign Relations: Foreign relations characterized by tension with neighboring states and economic dependence on aid from Arab and Western nations. Relations with neighboring states gradually improved as irredentist claims dating from Ogaden War period (1977-7 formally abandoned during 1980s; relations with Ethiopia remained strained despite 1988 peace agreement resulting from mutual harboring of foreign guerilla forces and uncontrolled mass migration. Relations with Western nations and United States broadened after 1977 rift with Soviet Union; United States military and economic aid provided throughout 1980s but suspended in 1989 because of human rights violations by Siad Barre government. Recipient of financial support from conservative Arab oil states.
http://www.somalinet.com/
فرانكلي
_____ أتق الله حيث ما كنت واتبع السيئة الحسنة تمحها وخالق الناس بخلق حسن
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 Re: Somalia (Re: Frankly)
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شكرا فرانكلي على الموضوع
وشكرا انه جاب ليون
عزيزتي
جيت اسلم عليكي
وينك ؟
الصور جميلة جدا واسمحر لي حاستلف واحدة منهم
في البروفيل بتاعي
اعجبتني بشده
الله يرجع ليكم بلدكم حلوة زي ما كانت
تحياتي
زولة123
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Re: Somalia (Re: zola123)
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اختي العزيزة ليون
لا شكر على واجب كما يقولون
ولي شخصيا علاقات قوية مع اخوتي من الصومال الحبيب
ومن هذا المنبر احيي اخي وزميل دراستي بألمانيا احمد جامع واتمنى له طيب الاقامة بالنرويج
ولك الشكر على الرابط وان شاء الله سأقوم بنشر بعضها هنا
فرانكلي
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أتق الله حيث ما كنت واتبع السيئة الحسنة تمحها وخالق الناس بخلق حسن
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Re: Somalia (Re: Frankly)
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الاخ الكريم فرانكلي
كل تقديري وعميق احترامي
وربنا يديمها علينا نعمة الاخوه
جزيل الشكر للاهتمام
تحياتي
ليون الصوماليه
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Re: Somalia (Re: zola123)
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الاخت الفاضلة د. زولا123
الشكر لك وانت تتفضلين بإطلالتك علينا
وآسف جدا على التأخر في الرد ولم يكن القصد منه التجاهل
بل كنت اود الرد تباعا ولكن شغلتني بعض الامور من مواصلة الردود
بعد ردي على الاخت ليون
مع تحياتي وتقديري
فرانكلي
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أتق الله حيث ما كنت واتبع السيئة الحسنة تمحها وخالق الناس بخلق حسن
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Re: Somalia (Re: zola123)
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العزيزه زوله 123
سلاااام ,وعذرا للتاخير في الرد
ما بينا فرق او سؤال يا بنت امي ,,اعتبري الصور كلهم هديه ليك
آمين ..ان شاء الله ترجع زي زمان واحسن وربنا يصلح حال اوطانا
كل الود
ليون الصوماليه
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Re: Somalia (Re: Frankly)
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الرئيس الصومالي يعد بالاستقرار ويطالب بقوات دولية
عبد الله يوسف أحمد وعد نواب البرلمان بالأمن وإعادة الإعمار(الفرنسية)
تعهد الرئيس الصومالي المنتخب عبد الله يوسف أحمد ببذل كل ما في وسعه لإعادة إعمار الصومال، مؤكدا في تصريحات عقب انتخابه بنيروبي أنه سيستقيل إذا فشل في استعادة الاستقرار السياسي ببلاده.
ووعد يوسف أحمد (69 عاما) نواب البرلمان الذين انتخبوه أمس بنيروبي والمجتمع الدولي بالعمل على تحقيق المصالحة بين الصوماليين وإحلال السلام والأمن. كما تعهد الرئيس الجديد بتشكيل هيئات الحكومة الانتقالية وفق المعايير الدولية في أقرب وقت ونزع أسلحة مليشيات الفصائل.
ودعا يوسف أحمد أيضا إلى إرسال قوة دولية للصومال لدعم جهود الحكومة الانتقالية في إعادة الإعمار. وقد أعلن الاتحاد الأفريقي أنه ينوي إرسال هذه القوة، لكنه لم يكشف بعد عن برنامج مفصل.
كما ذكرت مصادر بالهيئة الحكومية للتنمية (إيغاد) أن يوسف أحمد سيعين رئيسا للوزراء بعد أدائه اليمين الدستورية الخميس المقبل.
ثلاث جولات جرت لانتخاب الرئيس الجديد (الفرنسية)
واعترف وزير المالية السابق عبد الله أحمد عدو بهزيمته وقال إنه يدعم الحكومة الانتقالية الجديدة معربا عن أمله في تحقيق السلام بالصومال.
وكان عبد الله يوسف أحمد المدعوم من إثيوبيا رئيسا لما يعرف بإقليم "بونت لاند" شمال شرق الصومال.
وحصل يوسف أحمد على 185 صوتا من أصل 275 هم أعضاء البرلمان المؤقت، في حين حصل منافسه عدو على 76 صوتا وذلك في الجولة الثالثة بعد أن فشل أي من المرشحين في الفوز بثلث الأصوات في الجولتين الأولى والثانية اللتين تنافس فيهما 27 مرشحا منهم الرئيس السابق عبدي قاسم صلاد حسن.
ويقول أحمد إنه سيسعى من خلال فترة رئاسته الانتقالية ومدتها خمس سنوات لتحقيق الاستقرار بهدف وضع دستور جديد تجرى بموجبه الانتخابات في نهاية الفترة الانتقالية.
ويصفه المراقبون أيضا بأنه حليف معلن لواشنطن في حربها على ما يسمى الإرهاب حيث تعتقد الولايات المتحدة أن المناطق الصومالية قد تشكل ملاذا آمنا لعناصر تنظيم القاعدة في ظل الفوضى التي تعيشها البلاد.
المصدر: وكالات
الجزيرة نت
ألف مبروك للشعب الصومالي
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Frankly
zola123
فيس بوك
تويتر
انستقرام
يوتيوب
بنتيريست