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 Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 (Re: Ridhaa)
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شكرا أخ رضا علي هذا الموضوع المثير..
حقيقة أن حق الاقتراع والتصويت والاقتراع كفله الدستور
الامريكي قبل عام 1965 بعشرات السنين ..الا أن بعض
ولايات الجنوبكانت ترفض وتعرقل ذلك تحت حجج مختلفة مثل الامية
أو خلافه سنت بعض هذه الولايات قوانين ولائية تربط حق التصويت
بالتعليم او محو الامية الامر الذي كان يعني عمليا حرمان قطاع كبير من حق التصويت مما أدي لصدور القرار عام 1965 أيام حركة
الحقوق المدنية -- لازالة هذه العوائق ... عموما سوف سأساهم بأنزال بعض
المواضيع ذات الصلة هنا هذا أولها
United States Department of Justice
Civil Rights Division
Voting Section
Introduction To Federal Voting Rights Laws
Introduction To Federal Voting Rights Laws
Before the Voting Rights Act
The Voting Rights Act of 1965
The Effect of the Voting Rights Act
The Voting Rights Act of 1965
The 1965 Enactment
By 1965 concerted efforts to break the grip of state disfranchisement had been under way for some time, but had achieved only modest success overall and in some areas had proved almost entirely ineffectual. The murder of voting-rights activists in Philadelphia, Mississippi, gained national attention, along with numerous other acts of violence and terrorism. Finally, the unprovoked attack on March 7, 1965, by state troopers on peaceful marchers crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama, en route to the state capitol in Montgomery, persuaded the President and Congress to overcome Southern legislators' resistance to effective voting rights legislation. President Johnson issued a call for a strong voting rights law and hearings began soon thereafter on the bill that would become the Voting Rights Act.
Congress determined that the existing federal anti- discrimination laws were not sufficient to overcome the resistance by state officials to enforcement of the 15th Amendment. The legislative hearings showed that efforts by the Department of Justice to have discriminatory election practices eliminated by litigation on a case-by-case basis had been unsuccessful in opening up the registration process; as soon as one discriminatory practice or procedure was proven to be unconstitutional and enjoined, a new one would be substituted in its place and litigation would have to commence anew.
The resulting legislation, which President Johnson signed into law on August 6, 1965, temporarily suspended literacy tests, and provided for the appointment of federal examiners (with the power to register qualified citizens to vote), in those jurisdiction that were "covered" according to a formula provided in the statute. In addition, under Section 5 of the Act covered jurisdictions were required to obtain "preclearance" for new voting practices and procedures from either the District Court for the District of Columbia or the United States Attorney General. Section 2 of the Act, which closely followed the language of the 15th Amendment, applied a nationwide prohibition of denial or abridgment of the right to vote on account of race or color.
The Voting Rights Act had not included a provision prohibiting poll taxes, but had directed the Attorney General to challenge its use. In Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections, 383 U.S. 663 (1966), the Supreme Court held Virginia's poll tax to be unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment. Between 1965 and 1969 the Supreme Court also issued several key decisions upholding the constitutionality of Section 5 and affirming the broad range of voting practices for which preclearance was required. As the Supreme Court put it in its 1966 decision upholding the constitutionality of the Act:
Congress had found that case-by-case litigation was inadequate to combat wide-spread and persistent discrimination in voting, because of the inordinate amount of time and energy required to overcome the obstructionist tactics invariably encountered in these lawsuits. After enduring nearly a century of systematic resistance to the Fifteenth Amendment, Congress might well decide to shift the advantage of time and inertia from the perpetrators of the evil to its victims.
South Carolina v. Katzenbach, 383 U.S. 301, 327-28 (1966). See also Allen v. State Board of Elections, 393 U.S. 544 (1969) (recognizing that gerrymandered district boundaries or at-large elections could be used to dilute minority voting strength).
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The 1970 and 1975 Amendments
Congress extended Section 5 for five years in 1970 and for seven years in 1975. With these extensions Congress validated the Supreme Court's broad interpretation of the scope of Section 5 preclearance. During the hearings on these extensions Congress heard extensive testimony concerning the ways in which voting electorates were manipulated through gerrymandering, annexations, adoption of at-large elections and other structural changes to prevent newly-registered black voters from effectively using the ballot. Congress also heard extensive testimony about voting discrimination that had been suffered by Hispanic, Asian and Native American citizens, and the 1975 amendments added protections from voting discrimination for minority-language citizens.
In 1973, the Supreme Court held certain legislative multi- member districts unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment on the ground that they systematically diluted the voting strength of minority citizens in Bexar County, Texas. This decision in White v. Regester, 412 U.S. 755 (1973), strongly shaped litigation through the 1970's against at-large systems and gerrymandered redistricting plans. In Mobile v. Bolden, 446 U.S. 55 (1980), however, the Supreme Court required that any constitutional claim of minority vote dilution must include proof of a racially discriminatory purpose, a requirement that was widely seen as making such claims far more difficult to prove.
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كمال عباس
(عدل بواسطة kamalabas on 04-07-2004, 02:56 AM)
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| العنوان |
الكاتب |
Date |
| حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | Ridhaa | 04-06-04, 07:59 AM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | فرح | 04-06-04, 08:06 AM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | Ridhaa | 04-06-04, 08:32 AM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | ABU QUSAI | 04-06-04, 08:40 AM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | قلقو | 04-06-04, 08:52 AM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | Ridhaa | 04-06-04, 04:56 PM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | mustafa mudathir | 04-07-04, 03:33 AM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | kamalabas | 04-06-04, 03:52 PM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | kamalabas | 04-06-04, 03:59 PM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | kamalabas | 04-06-04, 04:06 PM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | kamalabas | 04-06-04, 04:11 PM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | Ridhaa | 04-06-04, 04:50 PM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | kamalabas | 04-06-04, 05:37 PM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | kamalabas | 04-06-04, 05:56 PM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | kamalabas | 04-07-04, 02:47 AM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | Unabomber | 04-07-04, 08:54 AM |
| Re: حق التصويت للافروأميريكان سوف ينتهي عام2007 | Ridhaa | 04-07-04, 09:43 AM |
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kamalabas
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