علم الإجتماع...Sociology

Quote: هوميروس (بالإغريقية: Ὅμηρος) شاعرٌ ملحمي إغريقي أسطوري يُعتقد أنه مؤلف الملحمتين الإغريقيتين الإلياذة والأوديسة. بشكلٍ عام، آمن الإغريق القدامى بأن هوميروس كان شخصية تاريخية، لكن الباحثين المحدثين يُشككون في هذا، ذلك أنه لا توجد ترجمات موثوقة لسيرته باقية من الحقبة الكلاسيكية (Classical Antiquity)،[1] كما أن الملاحم المأثورة عنه تمثل تراكماً لقرونٍ عديدة من الحكي الشفاهي وعروضاً شعرياً محكماً. ويرى مارتن وست أن هوميروس ليس اسماً لشاعرٍ تاريخية، بل اسماً مستعاراً.[2] تواريخ حياة هوميروس كانت موضع جدلٍ في الحقبة الكلاسيكية واستمر هذا الجدل إلى الآن. قال هيرودوت إن هوميروس عاش قبل زمانه بأربعمائة سنة، مما قد يعني أنه عاش في 850 ق. م. تقريباً.[3] بينما ترى مصادر قديمة أخرى أنه عاش في فترة قريبة من حرب طروادة المفترضة.[4]. ويعتقد إيراتوسثينيس الذي جاهد لإثبات تقويم علمي لأحداث حرب طروادة أنها كانت بين 1184 و1194 ق. م. بالنسبة للباحثين المعاصرين، يعني "تاريخ هوميروس" تاريخ تأليف القصائد بالنسبة لحياة شخصٍ واحد، ويُجمعون على أن الإلياذة والأوديسة تعود إلى نهاية القرن التاسع قبل الميلاد، أو تبدأ من القرن الثامن، حيث تسبق الإلياذة الأوديسةبعقود.",[5] ويسبق هذا التاريح هسيود [6] مما يجعل الإلياذة أقدم نصٍ أدبي مكتوب في الأدب الغربي. في العقود القليلة الماضية، حاجج بعض الباحثين ليثبتوا تاريخاً يعود إلى القرن السابع قبل الميلاد. ويُعطي من يعتقدون أن القصائد الهوميروسية تطورت تدريجياً خلال حقبة زمنية طويلة نسبياً تاريخاً متأخراً لها، إذ يرى غريغوري ناجي أنها لم تصبح نصوصاً ثابتة إلا بحلول القرن السادس قبل الميلاد.[7] يقول ألفرد هيوبك أن تأثير أعمال هوميروس الذي شكل تطور الثقافة الإغريقية وأثر فيها قد أقر به الإغريق الذين اعتبروه معلمهم.[8]

Quote: رغم أن "هوميروس" اسم إغريقي معروف في المناطق الناطقة بالأيولية،[9] فلا يُعرف شيء مؤكد بشأنه، ومع ذلك، فقد نشأت تقاليد غنية وُحفظت مُعطية تفاصيل معينة عن مكان ميلاده وخلفيته. وكثير من هذه الروايات خيالية: يجعل الهجاء لوشيان في عمله التاريخ الحقيقي منه بابلياً يُدعى تغرانِس، يُسمى نفسه هوميروس عندما يأخذه الإغريق رهينة (هوميروس).[10] سأل الإمبراطور هارديان معبد دلفي عمن كانه هوميروس حقاص، فأتاه الجواب بأنه كان من إيثاكا، وأبواه إبيكاسته وتليماخوس من الأوديسة.[11] جُمعت هذه الحكايات ورُتبت في عددٍ[12] من حيوات هوميروس جُمعت ابتداء من الحقبة الإسكندرية.[13] أكثر هذه الروايات ذيوعاً يرى أن هوميروس وُلد في إيونيا الواقعة في آسيا الصغرى، قرب سميرنا أو جزيرة خيوس، ومات في كيكلادس.[13][14] وتظهر إشارة إلى سميرنا في الأسطورة التي تقول إن اسمه الأصلي "ميليسجنس" (مولود من نهر ميليس الذي يجري قرب المدينة)، وأنه ابن الحورية كريثيس. وتدل القصائد على هذه الصلة، فهوميروس كان يألف طبوغرافية آسيا الصغرى بشكلٍ يظهر في معرفته بالتضاريس وأسماء الأماكن بالتفاصيل، وفي تشبيهاته التي تأتي من المشاهد المحلية، حين يُصور في الإلياذة السهول المحيطة بنهر كايستر، وعواصف البحر الإيكاري.[15] كما في وصفه لمزج النساء العاج باللون القرمزي في ميونيا وكاريا.[16] يعود الارتباط بخيوس إلى سيمونايدس الأمورغي الذي اقتبس سطراً شهيراً من الإلياذة على أنه من نظم "رجل خيوسي". وتظهر نقابة شعرية من نوعٍ ما تحمل اسم الهوميروسيين أو "ابناء هوميروس" في الجزيرة.[17] يظهر أن الجماعة وجدت هُناك مقتفية أثر سلفٍ أسطوري,[18] أو مجتمعة لتتخصص في إلقاء الشعر الهوميروسي.[19] لنطق اسم الشاعر ذات طريقة نطق كلمة ὅμερος التي تعني "رهينة"، أو "المُرافق، المفروض عليه أن يتبع"، وفي بعض اللكنات: "الأعمى".[19] وقد ألهم هذا التماثل اللفظي العديد من الحكايات التي تجعل من هوميروس رهينة أو رجلاً أعمى. وبخصوص العمى، فإن التقليد الذي يرى أنه أعمى قد يكون ناشئاً عن التقليد الإيوني حيث كلمة "هوميروس" تعني: "قائد الأعمى"،[20] والتقليد الإيولي حيث تعني كلمة "هوميروس": "الأعمى".[21] ويرجع تشخيص هومر بوصفه شاعراً أعمى إلى بعض مقاطع قصيدة ديلوس "أغنية إلى أبولو"، ثالثة الأغاني الهوميروسية،[22] ودعمت مقاطع أخرى عند ثوكيديدس هذا الاعتقاد.[23] وكان للمؤرخ الكومي إفوروس رؤية مماثلة، فصارت هذه رؤية الحقبة الكلاسيكية المعتمدة مستمدة قوتها من تجذير خاطئ يشتق اسم اشاعر من هو مي هورون (ὁ μὴ ὁρών: "الذي لا يرى"). وقد اعتقد الباحثون لوقتٍ طويل بأن هوميروس قد أشار إلى نفسه في الأوديسة عندما وصف شاعراً أعمى في بلاطٍ ملكي يروي قصصاً عن طروادة للملك أوديسيوس الذي تحطمت سفينته.[24] [25] يميل كثيرٌ من الباحثين إلى أخذ اسم الشاعر بوصفه مؤشراً على وظيفة عامة. فيعتقد غريغوري ناجي أنه يعني "الشخص الذي يُنسق الأغنية".[26] كما يعني فعل ὁμηρέω (هوميرو) "يُقابل" و"يغني نغمات متسقة"،[27] ويرى البعض أن "هوميروس" كلمة قد تعني "مُلحن الأصوات".[28][29] ويربط مارشيلو ديورانتي كلمة "هوميروس" بوصف زيوس "رب التجمعات"، ويُحاجج بأن الاسم يخفي استخداماً قديماً لكلمة "تجمع".[30][31] يُصور كتاب الحيوات القديمة هوميروس بوصفه شاعراً متجولاً مثل ثاميريس[32] أو هسيود الذي مشى إلى خالكيذا ليُغني في مباريات جنازة أمفيداماس.[33] مما يُشكل صورة "مغنِ أعمى شحاذ يتجول في الطرقات مع العامة: الإسكافيين، الصيادين، الخزافين، البحارة، العجائز المجتمعين في المدن المطلة على موانئ.[34] وتدل القصائد نفسها على مغنين في بلاطات النبلاء، مما يقسم الباحثين بين من يعتقدون أنه كان متسولاً في الشارع، أم مغنياً في البلاط، ولا زال الجدل غير محسوم حول هوية هوميروس التاريخي.[35]

Quote: نظراً لقلة المعلومات المتوفرة عن هوميروس وتضاربها، فإن هُناك من يُشكك في وجوده ذاته مما سبب نشأة السؤال الهوميري الذي يعود إلى الحقبة الكلاسيكية، حيث طرح سينيكا سؤالاً حول ما إذا كان لنا أن نعد مؤلف الإلياذة والأوديسة شخصاً واحداً، فعدد اليونايين الذين جدفوا في مراكب أوديسيوس يفوق عدد اليونانيين الناجين من الإلياذة.[36] ثم ازدهر السؤال الهوميري مع الاهتمام الكبير الذي أولاه إياه الباحثون الهوميروسيون في القرنين التاسع عشر والعشرين، مع امتداد الأسئلة حول هوية هوميروس، وحول تأليف كتبه. لم تنل فكرة كون هوميروس مسؤولاً عن الملحمتين الإلياذة والأوديسة فحسب الإجماع حتى 350 ق. م.[37] وبينما يعتقد كثيرون أنه من غير المرجع أن تكون الملحمتان من تأليف الشخص ذاته، يرى آخرون أن التشابه الأسلوبي بينهما قوي بما فيه الكفاية ليدعم نظرية المؤلف المنفرد في مواجهة نظرية تعدد المؤلفين. وتحاول رؤية متوسطة ة رأب الخلاف بين الطرفين، بالقول إن الإلياذة كانت من تأليف هوميروس في سن الرجولة، بينما جاءت الأوديسة في شيخوخته. ويتفق الجميع على أن الأناشيد الهوميرية والملاحم الدورية قد أُلفت في زمان يلي زمان الملحمتين. يتفق معظم الباحثين على خضوع الإلياذة والأوديسة لعملية تطوير مستمرة لتحسين المادة القديمة في بداية القرن الثامن قبل الميلاد. ويُعتقد أن الطاغية الأثيني هيبارخوس قد اضطلع بدورٍ كبيرٍ في تطوير الملحمتين عن طريق إصلاح تقاليد إلقاء الأشعار الهوميرية في المهرجانات الأثينية. ويرى بعض الباحثين الكلاسيكيين أن هذا الإصلاح قد يكون مشتملاً على عملية إنتاج نصٍ قانوني مكتوب. لا يزال باحثون آخرون مؤيدين لفكرة كون هوميروس شخصاً حقيقياً. وبما أنه لا يُعرف شيء عن حياة هوميروس هذا، فإنهم يستخدمون عبارة ساخرة تُستخدم أيضاً في الجدل حول المسرحيات المنسوبة إلى شكسبير: "لم يكتب هوميروس هذه الأعمال، بل كتبها رجلٌ آخر له الاسم نفسه.[38][39] حاجج سامويل بتلر بأن امرأة صقلية شابة كتبت الأوديسة - لكنها لم تكتب الإلياذة - واستخدم روبرت غريفز هذه الفكرة في روايته ابنة هوميروس كما استخدمها أندرو دلبي في إعادة اكتشاف هوميروس.[40] وبشكل مستقل عن سؤال تأليف الملاحم الفردي، فإن هناك إجماعاً شبه عالمي على اعتماد قصائد هوميروس على التقليد الشفاهي بعد كتاب ميلمان باري.[41] إذ يكشف تحليل لبنية الإلياذة والأوديسة ومفرداتهما عن احتوائهما على كثيرٍ من الصياغات اللفظية المميزة للتقليد الشفاهي في رواية الملاحم، حتى أ الكثير من الأبيات تتكرر من وقتٍ لآخر. أشار باري وتلميذه ألبرت لورد إلى أن التقليد الشفاهي البعيد عن ثقافاتنا الحاضرة المكتوبة مميز رئيسي للشعر الملحمي في ثقافة تغلب عليها التقاليد الشفاهية. وقصد باري بكلمة "تقليدي": الأجزاء المكررة من اللغة التي يرثها الشاعر-المغني عن سابقيه، والتي يُفيد منها في التأليف، ويُسميها باري "الصيغ". زمن تحويل القصائد من نصٍ شفاهي إلى نص مكتوب موضع خلاف. حيث يفترض المُقترب التقليدي للمسألة نظرية تدوين حرفي للنص، حيث يُملي هوميروس قصائده على مدويه بين القرنين الثامن والسادس قبل الميلاد. ظهرت الكتابة الإغريقية في القرن الثامن قبل الميلاد، لذا يُمكن أن يكون هوميروس نفسه من الجيل الأول للشعراء الذين يكتبون. ويقترح الباحث الكلاسيكي باري بويل أن الأبجدية الإغريقية قد اخترعت في حوالي 800 ق. م. من قبل رجلٍ واحد، يُرجح أنه هوميروس، لتستخدم في كتابة الشعر الملحمي الشفاهي.[42] بينما يُصر الهوميروسيون الأكثر راديكالية مثل غريغوري ناجي على أن نص القصائد الهوميرية القانوني المخطوط لم يُوجد حتى الحقبة الهلسنتية (القرن الثالث حتى الأول قبل الميلاد).

Quote: كلمة "هوميروس" كانت تعني للإغريق في القرن السادس وبداية القرن الخامس "كل التقليد البطولي المتجسد في النظم على الوزن السداسعشري".[43] ولذلك، توجد ملاحم "استثنائية" أخرى بجوار الإلياذة والأوديسة تقدم ثيماتها بشكلٍ أكبر من الحياة.[44] كما نُسبت أعمالٌ أخرى كثيرة إلى هوميروس خلال الحقبة الكلاسيكية من ضمنها كل دائرة الملاحم. وتضمن هذا قصائد أخرى عن حرب طروادة مثل الإلياذة الصغيرة والنوستوي والسيبيرية والرثائية والقصائد الطيبية عن أوديب وأبنائه. كما تتضمن الأعمال الأخرى المنسوبة إليه الأناشيد الهوميرية، والملحمة الكوميدية المصغرة حرب الضفادع والفئران التي يُعتقد الآن أنها لا تخصه. قصيدتان أخريان هما أسر أوخاليا وفوكايس صُنفتا ضمن الأعمال الهوميرية، لكن السؤال حول هوية مؤلفي هذه الأعمال المتنوعة أكثر إشكالية من السؤال حول هوية مؤلف الملحمتين الرئيسيتين. [عدل] الدراسات الهوميرية دراسة هوميروس من أقدم المواضيع البحثية العائدة إلى الحقبة الكلاسيكية. تغيرت أهداف الدراسات الهوميرية وإنجازاتها خلال الألفية، ففي القرون الماضية تمحورت هذه الدراسات حول الكيفية التي انتقلت بها هذه النصوص إلينا عبر الزمن، شفاهة ثم كتابة. بعض الاتجاهات الرئيسية في الدراسات الهوميرية في القرنين التاسع عشر والعشرين كانت تحليل التماثلات والاختلافات في أعمال هوميروس. وفي أواخر القرن العشرين وما تلاه سادت "النظرية الشفاهية" التي تدرس الكيفية التي انتقلت بها النصوص إلينا وتأثير نقلها الشفاهي عليها، ودراسة العلاقة بين هوميروس والمواد الملحمية المبكرة الأخرى. [عدل] الصيغة الإغريقية التى استخدمها هوميروس يستخدم هوميروس في الإلياذة والأوديسة صيغة عتيقة من الإغريقية الأيونية، الممزوجة بلهجات أخرى مثل الإغريقية الأيولية، صارت فيما بعد أساس الإغريقية الملحمية، لغة الشعر الملحمي المُصاغ على الوزن السداسعشري لشعراء مثل هسيود. وعلى خلاف الصيغ اللاحقة من اللغة، فإن الإغريقية الهوميرية لا تملك في معظم الأحوال أداة تعريف واضحة.[45] وقد استمر التأليف بالإغريقية الملحمية إلى وقتٍ متأخر من القرن الثالث بعد الميلاد، رغم أن اندثارها كان حتمياً بنهضة الإغريقية القوينية. [عدل] أسلوب هوميروس يُلاحظ أرسطو في فن الشعر أن هوميروس كان فريداً بين شعراء زمانه بتركيزه على ثيمة محددة أو حدث معين في ملاحمه.[46] ويصف ماثيو أرنولد خصائص أسلوب هوميروس المميزة بقوله:[47] « ينبغي أن يكون مترجم هوميروس واعياً بأربع خصائص هامة تميز مؤلفه: أن أفكاره متلاحقة. وأنه بسيط ومباشر في تطوير أفكاره وفي التعبير عنها وهذا يشمل كلماته وتراكيب جمله. كما أن مادة فكره بسيطة وصريحة، أي أن أفكاره بسيطة في جوهرها. وأنه شديد النبل.»تعود سُرعة هوميروس المميزة إلى براعته في استخدام الوزن السداس عشري، ومن خصائص الأدب المبكر أن تطور الفكر أو صيغة الجملة النحوية محكومٌ بتركيب النظم، وبالتبادل بينهما ينتج النظم، وتتركب الجملة. حيث تُعطى الفكرة مقسمة إلى أطوالٍ معينة، وتُقسَم هذه بدورها إلى وحداتٍ تُنتج وقفات متماثلة تؤدي إلى حركة سريعة يُصعب معها إدراك الفكرة من دون الرجوع إلى العروض لمعرفة النظام الذي يُبنى عليه النص، وطريقة تقسيمه. يملك هوميروس هذه السرعة، لكنه لا يقع في عيوب التتابع هذه، فلا يُصبح نصه سريعاً متطايراً، أو واحد النغمة، مما يُثبت براعته الشعرية. ويُشير أرنولد إلى أن موهبة هوميروس الفائقة في النظم شبيهة بموهبة فولتير، خصوصاً في الإلياذة، بينما تقبع الأوديسة في درجة أدنى منها بسبب وجود عيوب في التتابع. ليست سرعة وسهولة الحركة، وصراحة التعبير والفكر مميزاتٍ للشعراء الملحميين العظام مثل فرجيل ودانتي[48] وجون ميلتون. وعلى عكسه، فإنهم ينتمون إلى مدرسة أقل تواضعاً في النظم: الملحمية الغنائية، وهذه مدرسة كان هوميروس يُنسب إليها. ويكمن الدليل في عدم انتساب هوميروس إلى الملحمية الغنائية، وتفوق قصائده على أسلوب البالادات في البنية الفنية العالية لقصائده، وفي قيمة النُبل الكامنة فيها. فأسلوب هوميروس نبيل وقوي، ومتدفق رغم تغيير الأفكار والمواضيع، مما يُفرق بين هوميروس وبين شعراء الملحمة الغنائية. شعر هوميروس فطري مثل الملاحم الفرنسية كأغنية رولان، ويُمكن تمييز أسلوبه بسهولة من أساليب فرجيل ودانتي وميلتون بسبب سهولة حركته ووضوحه التام. كما يُمكن تمييز أسلوبه عن أساليبهم لغياب الدافعٍ العاطفي وراء النص. ففي شعر فرجيل، دافع النص الخفي الذي يُحرك بلاغته إحساسُ بعظمة روما وإيطاليا، يُخفيه أحياناً وراء رقة لغته. بينما دانتي وميلتون شديدا الوفاء لتعاليم زمنهما الدينية وسياساته. بل إن الملاحم الفرنسية نفسها تُظهر عواطف الكراهية والعداء ناحية السراسنة، بينما تهتم أعمال هوميروس بالتأثير الدرامي وحسب. فلا يوجد عنده شعورٌ قوي مضاد لعرقٍ أو دين، ولا تكشف حربه عن أحداثٍ سياسية، وحتى سقوط طروادة يقع خارج نطاق الإلياذة، ولا يُمكن مماهاة أبطاله مع أبطال الإغريق القوميين. يكمن موضع اهتمام هوميروس في العواطف البشرية والدراما، حيث تُرى أعماله أحياناً بوصفها أعمالاً درامية.

Quote: Homer (Ancient Greek: Ὅμηρος, Hómēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey. The ancient Greeks generally believed that Homer was an historical individual, but most scholars are skeptical: no reliable biographical information has been handed down from classical antiquity,[1] and the poems themselves seem to represent the culmination of many centuries of oral story-telling and a well-developed formulaic system of poetic composition. According to Martin West, "Homer" is "not the name of a historical poet, but a fictitious or constructed name."[2] The date of Homer's existence was controversial in antiquity and is no less so today. Herodotus said that Homer lived 400 years before his own time, which would place him at around 850 BC;[3] but other ancient sources gave dates much closer to the supposed time of the Trojan War.[4] The date of the Trojan War was given as 1194–1184 BC by Eratosthenes, who strove to establish a scientific chronology of events, and this date is gaining support in light of recent archaeological research.[citation needed] For modern scholarship, "the date of Homer" refers to the date of the poems' conception as much as to the lifetime of an individual. The scholarly consensus is that "the Iliad and the Odyssey date from the extreme end of the 9th century BC or from the 8th, the Iliad being anterior to the Odyssey, perhaps by some decades,"[5] i.e. somewhat earlier than Hesiod,[6] and that the Iliad is the oldest work of Western literature. Over the past few decades, some scholars have argued for a 7th-century date. Those who believe that the Homeric poems developed gradually over a long period of time, however, generally give a later date for the poems: according to Gregory Nagy, they became fixed texts in only the 6th century.[7] Alfred Heubeck states that the formative influence of the works of Homer in shaping and influencing the whole development of Greek culture was recognized by many Greeks themselves, who considered him to be their instructor.[

Quote: Although "Homer" is a Greek name, attested in Aeolic-speaking areas,[9] nothing definite is known of him; yet rich traditions grew up, or were conserved, purporting to give details of his birthplace and background. Many of them were purely fantastical: the satirist Lucian, in his fabulous True History, makes him out to be a Babylonian called Tigranes, who assumed the name Homer only when taken "hostage" (homeros) by the Greeks.[10] When the Emperor Hadrian asked the Oracle at Delphi who Homer really was, the Pythia proclaimed that he was Ithacan, the son of Epikaste and Telemachus, from the Odyssey.[11] These stories proliferated and were incorporated into a number[12] of Lives of Homer compiled from the Alexandrian period onwards.[13] The most common version has Homer born in the Ionian region of Asia Minor, at Smyrna, or on the island of Chios, and dying on the Cycladic island of Ios.[13][14] A connection with Smyrna seems to be alluded to in a legend that his original name was "Melesigenes" ("born of Meles", a river which flowed by that city), and of the nymph Kretheis. Internal evidence from the poems gives some support to this connection: familiarity with the topography of this area of Asia Minor's littoral obtrudes in place-names and details, and similes evocative of local scenery: the meadow birds at the mouth of the Caystros (Iliad 2.459ff.), a storm in the Icarian sea (Iliad 2.144ff.), and wind-lore (Iliad 2.394ff: 4.422ff: 9.5),[15] or that women of either Maeonia or Caria stain ivory with scarlet (Iliad 4.142).[16] The association with Chios dates back at least to Semonides of Amorgos who cited a famous line in the Iliad (6.146) as by "the man of Chios". Some kind of eponymous bardic guild, known as the Homeridae (sons of Homer), or Homeristae ('Homerizers')[17] appears to have existed there, variously tracing descent from an imaginary ancestor of that name,[18] or vaunting their special function as rhapsodes or "lay-stitchers" specialising in the recitation of Homeric poetry. The poet's name is homophonous with ὅμερος (hómēros), meaning, generally, "hostage" (or "surety"), long understood as "he who accompanies; he who is forced to follow", or, in some dialects, "blind".[19] The assonance itself generated many tales relating the person to the functions of a hostage or of a blind man. In regard to the latter, traditions holding that he was blind may have arisen from the meaning of the word both in Ionic, where the verbal form ὁμηρεύω (homēreúō) has the specialized meaning of "guide the blind",[20] and in the Aeolian dialect of Cyme, where ὅμηρος (hómēros) was synonymous with standard Greek τυφλός (tuphlós), meaning 'blind'.[21] The characterization of Homer as a blind bard goes back to some verses in the Delian Hymn to Apollo, the third of the Homeric Hymns,[22] verses later cited to support this notion by Thucydides.[23] The Cumean historian Ephorus held the same view, and the idea gained support in antiquity on the strength of a false etymology deriving his name from ho mḕ horṓn (ὁ μὴ ὁρών: "he who does not see"). Critics have long taken as self-referential[24] a passage in the Odyssey describing a blind bard, Demodocus, in the court of the Phaeacian king, who recounts stories of Troy to the shipwrecked Odysseus.[25] Many scholars take the name of the poet to be indicative of a generic function. Gregory Nagy takes it to mean "he who fits (the Song) together".[26] ὁμηρέω (homēréō), another related verb, besides signifying "meet", can mean "(sing) in accord/tune".[27] Some argue that "Homer" may have meant "he who puts the voice in tune" with dancing.[28][29] Marcello Durante links "Homeros" to an epithet of Zeus as "god of the assemblies" and argues that behind the name lies the echo of an archaic word for "reunion", similar to the later Panegyris, denoting a formal assembly of competing minstrels.[30][31] The Ancient Lives depict Homer as a wandering minstrel, much like Thamyris[32] or Hesiod, who walked as far as Chalkis to sing at the funeral games of Amphidamas.[33] We are given the image of a "blind, begging singer who hangs around with little people: shoemakers, fisherman, potters, sailors, elderly men in the gathering places of harbour towns".[34] The poems themselves give evidence of singers at the courts of the nobility. Scholars are divided as to which category, if any, the court singer or the wandering minstrel, the historic "Homer" belonged.[35]

Quote: أرسطو أو أرسطوطاليس أو أرسطاطاليس(بالإغريقية: Ἀριστοτέλης) (384 ق م - 322 ق م) فيلسوف إغريقي، تلميذ أفلاطون ومعلم الإسكندر الأكبر. كتب في العديد من المواضيع، بما في ذلك علوم الفيزياء والميتافيزيقا، الشعر، المسرح، الموسيقى، والمنطق والبلاغة والسياسة والحكومة، والأخلاق، والبيولوجيا، وعلم الحيوان. جنبا إلى جنب مع أفلاطون وسقراط (معلم أفلاطون)، أرسطو واحد من أهم الشخصيات في تأسيس الفلسفة الغربية. كان اول من إنشاء نظام شامل للفلسفة الغربية، ويشمل الأخلاق وعلم الجمال والمنطق والعلم والسياسة والميتافيزيقا. وجهات نظر أرسطو حول العلوم الفيزيائية شكلت بعمق دراسات العصور الوسطى، وامتد تأثيرها الي عصر النهضة، على الرغم من أنها كانت في نهاية المطاف حلت محلها قوانين نيوتن في الفيزياء. في مجال العلوم البيولوجية، تم تاكيد علي دقة بعض ملاحظاته فقط في القرن التاسع عشر. اعماله تحتوي الدراسة المبكرة للمنطق الرسمي، والتي تأسست في أواخر القرن التاسع عشر إلى المنطق الرسمي الحديث. في الميتافيزيقيا، مذهب أرسطو كان لها تأثير عميق على الفكر الفلسفي واللاهوتي في التقاليد الإسلامية واليهودية في القرون الوسطى، لا يزال تأثيرها في اللاهوت المسيحي مستمرا، وخاصة الأرثوذكسية الشرقية اللاهوت، والتقاليد النصرانية للكنيسة الكاثوليكية. أخلاقه، وعلى الرغم من تأثيرها المستمر، اكتسبت اهتماما متجددا مع ظهور الأخلاق الفضيلة الحديثة. جميع جوانب فلسفة أرسطو لا تزال موضع دراسة أكاديمية نشطة اليوم. على الرغم من أرسطو كتب العديد من الرسالات الأنيقة والحوارات (وصف شيشرون أسلوبه الأدبي بأنها "نهر من الذهب")، [1] ويعتقد الآن أن معظم كتاباته فقدت، إلا نحو ثلث من الأعمال الأصلية نجا.[2]

Quote: ولد أرسطو في اسطاغرا، Chalcidice، في 384 قبل الميلاد، عن 55 كم (34 ميل) شرق سالونيك. في العالم الحالي [3] كان الده بيكوماكس الطبيب الشخصي للملك امينتاس المقدوني. تدرب وتعلم أرسطو بوصفه عضوا من الطبقة الأرستقراطية. في حوالي الثامنة عشرة من العمر، ذهب إلى أثينا لمواصلة تعليمه في أكاديمية أفلاطون. استمر أرسطو في الاكاديمية ما يقرب من عشرين عاما، لم يتركها الإ بعد وفاة أفلاطون في 347 قبل الميلاد. ثم سافر مع زينوكراتس إلى محكمة صديقة هيرمس في اتارنيس في آسيا الصغرى. في آسيا، سافر أرسطو مع ثيوفراستوس إلى جزيرة ليسبوس، حيث بحثا معا في علم النبات وعلم الحيوان في الجزيرة. تزوج ارسطو ابنة هيرميس بالتبني بيسياس. أنجبت له ابنة، سمياه Pythias. بعد فترة وجيزة من موت هيرميس، دعي أرسطو من قبل فيليب الثاني المقدوني ليصبح معلم ابنه الاسكندر الأكبر في 343 قبل الميلاد [4] التصوير الإسلامي في وقت مبكر من أرسطو أرسطو صورت في 1493 نورمبرغ باعتبارها وقائع 15th - عالم القرنكما تم تعيين أرسطو رئيسا للأكاديمية الملكية المقدونية. وخلال ذلك الوقت لم يعطى دروسا فقط لالكسندر، ولكن أيضا لاثنين من ملوك المستقبل : بطليموس وكاساندر. في سياستة، اوضح أرسطو أن شيئا واحدا فقط يمكن أن يبرر الحكم الملكي، وهو إذا كان فضل الملك وعائلته أكبر من فضيلة بقية المواطنين مجتمعة. بلباقة، شمل الأمير الشاب والده في تلك الفئة. شجع أرسطو الكسندر تجاه الغزو الشرقي، وموقفه تجاه بلاد فارس متعالي بلا خجل. في أحد الأمثلة الشهيرة، نصح الكسندر ليكون 'زعيم الإغريق وطاغية علي البرابرة، وأن يرعى الأول كالأصدقاء والأقارب، ويتعامل مع الأخير كما هو الحال مع الحيوانات أو النباتات'.[5] وفي عام 335 قبل الميلاد عاد إلى أثينا، وأسس مدرسته الخاصة هناك تعرف باسم المعهد الأدبي (الليسيوم). استمرت دورات أرسطو في المدرسة على مدى السنوات الاثنتي عشرة القادمة. أثناء وجوده في أثينا، توفيت زوجته Pythias وأرسطو انخرط مع Herpyllis من ستاغيرا، أنجبت له ابنه الذي كان يحمل اسم والده، Nicomachus. وفقا لسودا، كان له eromenos، Palaephatus من Abydus. [6] خلال هذه الفترة في أثينا في الفترة من 335 قبل الميلاد إلى 323 قبل الميلاد يعتقد أنه ألف الكثير من أعماله.[4] أرسطو كتب العديد من المسرحيات، القليل منها نجى من الموت. والأعمال التي بقيت هي في شكل رسالات، معظمها معد للنشر على نطاق واسع، كما هي عموما، يعتقد انها محاضرات مساعدة لطلابه. وتشمل معظم الرسالات الهامة الفيزياء، الميتافيزيقيا، أخلاق نيكوماكين، السياسة، دي أنيما (في الروح)، والشعر. لم يدرس فقط أرسطو كل موضوع ممكن في ذلك الوقت، ولكن قدم مساهمات هامة في معظمها. في العلوم الطبيعية، درس أرسطو التشريح وعلم الفلك، والاقتصاد، وعلم الأجنة والجغرافيا والجيولوجيا والأرصاد الجوية والفيزياء وعلم الحيوان. في الفلسفة، كتب عن علم الجمال، والأخلاق، والحكومة، والميتافيزيقيا، والسياسة وعلم النفس والبلاغة وعلم اللاهوت. ودرس أيضا التعليم، والعادات الأجنبية والأدب والشعر. أعماله مجتمعة تشكل موسوعة المعارف اليونانية. وقد قيلأن أرسطو كان على الأرجح اخر شخص يعرف كل شيء معروفا في عصره.[7] قرب نهاية حياة الكسندر، بدأ الكسندر في الشك في مؤامرات ضد نفسه، وهدد أرسطو في الرسائل. لم يخف أرسطو احتقاره للالكسندر لادعاء الألوهية، حيث اعدم الملك حفيد ارسطو كاليسنز باعتباره خائنا. وثمة اشاعات على نطاق واسع في العصور القديمة يشتبه في أن أرسطو لعب دور في وفاة الإسكندر، ولكن هناك القليل من الأدلة على ذلك.[8] عند وفاة الإسكندر المقدوني, اشتعلت المشاعر المعادية في أثينا مرة أخرى. استنكر ايرميدون الكاهن علي أرسطو عدم تكريمه للآلهة. فر أرسطو من المدينة إلى مقاطعة عائلة والدته في خالكيذا، موضحا "لن أسمح لالأثينيين الخطيئة مرتين ضد الفلسفة ،" [9] إشارة الي المحاكمة السابقة وإعدام سقراط. ومع ذلك، توفي في [إيوبوا] لأسباب طبيعية في غضون السنة (في 322 قبل الميلاد). ومنفذ وصية ارسطو كان تلميذه أنتيباتر، وترك وصية طلب فيها أن يدفن بجوار زوجته.[10] [عدل] المنطق مقال تفصيلي :Term logicلتفاصيل أكثر عن هذا الموضوع، انظر Non-Aristotelian logic. مع التحليلات السابقة، أرسطو يرجع اليه الفضل في الدراسة الأولى من المنطق الرسمي، وتصوره لأنه كان الشكل السائد من المنطق الغربي حتى التطورات في المنطق الرياضي في القرن 19th كانط قال في نقد العقل الخالص أن نظرية أرسطو للمنطق تمثل جوهر الاستدلال الاستنتاجي. [عدل] التاريخ يقول أرسطو 'عن موضوع التعليل 'انه' لم يكن أي شيء آخر في وقت مبكر للحديث عنه '".[11] ومع ذلك، تقارير أفلاطون تفيد بأن بناء الجملة استنبط من قبله، من قبل برودكس من سيوس، الذي كان مهتما بالاستخدام الصحيح للكلمات. ويبدو أن المنطق برز من الجدل، والفلاسفة في وقت سابق أدلى كثرة استخدام مفاهيم مثل برهنة القضية بإثبات فساد نقيضها في مناقشاتهم، لكنه لم يفهم حقا الآثار المنطقية. حتى أفلاطون واجهته صعوبات مع المنطق ؛ على الرغم من أن لديه تصور معقول لنظام الاستنتاج، لم يستطع بناء واحدة، واعتمدعلي الجدلية. [12] يعتقد أفلاطون أن الاستنتاج ينبع بسهولة من اتباع المقدمات المنطقية، وبالتالي فإنه يركز على الحفاظ على المقدمات المنطقية الثابتة, بحيث يكون الختام منطقيا. وبالتالي، أدرك أفلاطون ان طريقة الحصول على النتائج ستكون مفيدة للغاية. ولكنه لم ينجح في وضع مثل هذا الأسلوب، ولكن أفضل محاولاته نشر في كتابه السفسطائي، حيث وضح طريقة التقسيم.[13] [عدل] تحليلات والأورغانون مقال تفصيلي :Organonما نسميه اليوم منطق أرسطو، أرسطو نفسه سيطلق عليها "تحليلات". مصطلح "المنطق" احتفظ به ليعني الجدال. معظم أعمال أرسطو هو على الارجح ليست في شكلها الأصلي، لأنه من المرجح انة تم تعديلها من قبل الاساتذة والطلاب في وقت لاحق. واعمال المنطق لأرسطو جمعت في ستة كتب في بداية القرن الميلادي الأول 1.الفئات 2.التفسير 3.قبل تحليلات 4.خلفية التحليلات 5.- المواضيع 6.تفنيد السفسطائي ترتيب الكتب (أو التعاليم التي تتألف منها) ليس مؤكدا، ولكن هذه القائمة مستمدة من تحليل كتابات أرسطو. وتبدا من الأساسيات، تحليل العبارات البسيطة في التصنيفات، وتحليل المقترحات وعلاقاتها الجذرية في التفسير، لدراسة أشكال أكثر تعقيدا، وهي القياس المنطقي (في تحليلات) والجدلية (في موضوعات وتفنيد السفسطائي). الرسائل الثلاثة الأولى تشكل جوهر نظرية منطقية المعنى الضيق للكلمة : النحو للغة المنطق وقواعد صحة التعليل. هناك نسخة واحدة من منطق أرسطو لم يتم العثور عليها في الأورغانون، وهي الرابعة من كتاب الميتافيزيقا.. [12] [عدل] الأسلوب العلمي لأرسطو أفلاطون (إلى اليسار) وأرسطو (إلى اليمين)، وهو من التفصيل ومدرسة أثينا، لوحة جدارية رفائيل. أرسطو فتات إلى الأرض، التي تمثل اعتقاده في المعرفة من خلال الملاحظة التجريبية والخبرة، بينما يمسك نسخة من تقريره Nicomachean الأخلاقيات في يده، بينما فتات أفلاطون إلى السماء، تمثل في اعتقاده وأشكال.لتفاصيل أكثر عن هذا الموضوع، انظر Aristotle's theory of universals. مثل أستاذه أفلاطون, تهدف فلسفة أرسطو إلى العالمية. ارسطو، ومع ذلك، وجد العالمية في أمور معينة، التي وصفها بأنها جوهر الأشياء، في حين يرى أفلاطون أن العالمية موجودة بصرف النظر عن اشياء معينة، وغير المتعلقة بها على نموذج أو قدوة. لأرسطو، لذلك، تنطوي الطريقة الفلسفية على الصعود من دراسة الظواهر الخاصة لمعرفة الجواهر، في حين أن طريقة أفلاطون الفلسفية تعني الهبوط من معرفة نماذج عالمية (أو أفكار) إلى التأمل في تقليد معين من هذه. لأرسطو، "شكل" لا يزال يشير إلى أساس غير مشروط من الظواهر بل هو "مثيل" في مادة معينة (انظر المسلمات والتفاصيل أدناه). بمعنى ما، أسلوب أرسطو على حد سواء الاستقرائي والاستنتاجي، في حين أن أفلاطون هو أساسا من استنتاجي لمبادئ الاستدلالية. [14] في مصطلحات أرسطو، "الفلسفة الطبيعية" هو فرع من فروع الفلسفة دراسة الظواهر الطبيعية في العالم، وتشمل المجالات التي من شأنها أن تعتبر اليوم الفيزياء والبيولوجيا وغيرها من العلوم الطبيعية. في العصر الحديث، نطاق الفلسفة أصبح محدودا لمزيد من الاستفسارات عامة أو مجردة، مثل الأخلاق والميتافيزيقا والمنطق الذي يلعب دورا رئيسيا. فلسفة اليوم تميل إلى استبعاد الدراسة التجريبية للعالم الطبيعي عن طريق المنهج العلمي. في المقابل، شملت فلسفة أرسطو تقريبا جميع جوانب التحقيق الفكرية. بالمعنى الأوسع للكلمة، جعل أرسطو الفلسفة توازي المنطق، الذي يصفه أيضا بأنه "العلم". نلاحظ، مع ذلك، إن استخدام مصطلح العلم يحمل معنى مختلفا عن تلك التي يشملها مصطلح "الطريقة العلمية". بالنسبة لأرسطو، "جميع العلوم (dianoia) إما أن يكون عمليا، أو نظريا أو شعريا" (الميتافيزيقيا 1025b25). من العلوم التطبيقية، يقصد الأخلاق والسياسة، ومن العلوم الشعرية، يقصد دراسة الشعر والفنون الجميلة الأخرى، ومن العلوم النظرية، وقال يقصد الفيزياء والرياضيات والميتافيزيقا. إذا كان المنطق (أو "تحليلات") تعتبر دراسة أولية لفلسفة، فإن الانقسامات في الفلسفة الأرسطية تتألف من : (1) المنطق ؛ (2) الفلسفة النظرية، بما في ذلك الميتافيزيقيا، الفيزياء، الرياضيات، (3) والفلسفة العملية (4) الفلسفة الشعرية. في الفترة ما بين افترتي اقامتة في أثينا، بين أوقاته في الأكاديمية والليسيوم أجرى أرسطو الكثير من التفكير والبحث العلمي الذي شهره اليوم. في الواقع، كرس أرسطو معظم حياته لدراسة موضوعات العلوم الطبيعية. ميتافيزيقا أرسطو تتضمن ملاحظات حول طبيعة الأرقام ولكنة لم يسهم أصلا في الرياضيات. علي الرغم من ذلك، قام بأبحاث أصيلة في مجال العلوم الطبيعية، على سبيل المثال، علم النبات، علم الحيوان، والفيزياء والفلك والكيمياء والأرصاد الجوية، والعديد من العلوم الأخرى. كتابات أرسطو في العلوم إلى حد كبير تعتمد على النوعية، بدلا من الكمية. بداية في القرن السادس عشر، بدأ العلماء تطبيق الرياضيات في العلوم الفيزيائية، وعمل أرسطو في هذا المجال يعتبر غير مناسبة. إخفاقاته إلى حد كبير كانت بسبب غياب المفاهيم مثل الكتلة والسرعة والقوة ودرجة الحرارة. كان لديه تصور للسرعة ودرجة الحرارة، ولكن لا تفهم منها الكمية، والذي يرجع جزئيا إلى عدم وجود الأجهزة التجريبية الأساسية، مثل الساعات وأجهزة قياس الحرارة. نيزك الخضراء والحمراء Perseid اللافت في السماء.كتاباته تقدم سردا للكثير من الملاحظات العلمية، وهي مزيج من الدقة قبل الاوان والأخطاء الغريبة. على سبيل المثال، في رسالته التاريخ من الحيوانات ادعى أن الرجل لديه اسنان أكثر من المرأة [15] وفي جيل من الحيوانات قال الأنثى كما هي لأنها كانت مشوهة من الذكور.[16] في نفس السياق، أظهر جون فيلوبونس، وبعده، غاليليو، من تجارب بسيطة أن نظرية أرسطو أن الأشياء الأثقل تسقط بسرعة أكبر من الأشياء الأخف غير صحيحة.[17] من ناحية أخرى، فند أرسطو ادعاء دموكريتثس بأن درب التبانة تتألف من" هذه النجوم التي هي مظللة من الأرض من أشعة الشمس "، مشيرا إلى (بشكل صحيح، حتى لو كان هذا النوع من التفكير لا بد أن يكون رفض منذ وقت طويل) نظرا "لللإثباتات الفلكية الحالية " أن "حجم الشمس أكبر من الأرض والمسافة من النجوم الي الأرض أكبر من الشمس عدة مرات، ثم تشرق الشمس... على كل النجوم والأرض لاتحجب أيا منها.[18] في الأماكن، أرسطو يذهب بعيدا جدا في استنباط 'قوانين الكون' من الملاحظة البسيطة والأسباب المطولة يفترض الأسلوب العلمي اليوم أن مثل هذا التفكير من دون ما يكفي من الوقائع غير فعالة، والتعرف علي صحة فرضية واحدة يتطلب الآن تجارب أكثر صرامة من تلك التجارب التي استخدمها أرسطو لدعم قوانينه. أرسطو أيضا لدية بعض البقع العلمية العمياء. افترض علم الكونيات من مركز الأرض التي قد نستشف في مختارات الميتافيزيقيا، والتي تحظى بقبول واسع حتى في 1500. من القرن الثالث الي1500، والرأي السائد أن الأرض هي مركز الكون (geocentrism). ولأنه كان الفيلسوف الأكثر احتراما من قبل المفكرين الأوروبيين خلال وبعد عصر النهضة، استخدم هؤلاء المفكرين مواقف ارسطو الخاطئة كما هي، والتي اخرت العلم في هذا العصر.[19] ومع ذلك، القصور العلمي لأرسطو لا ينبغي أن ينسينا التقدم الكبير الذي حققة في العديد من الحقول العلمية. على سبيل المثال، أسس المنطق كعلم رسمي، وخلق الأسس لعلم الاحياء التي لم تكن موجودة لألفي عام. وعلاوة على ذلك، عرض الفكرة الأساسية وهي ان الطبيعة تتكون من أشياء متغيرة ودراسة هذة التغيرات ممكن ان توفر معرفة مفيدة عن الثوابت التي تقوم عليها.

Quote: Aristotle (Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC)[1] was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, ####physics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and ####physics. Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics. In the zoological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. In ####physics, Aristotelianism had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages, and it continues to influence Christian theology, especially Eastern Orthodox theology, and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"),[2] it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived.[3]

Quote: Aristotle was born in Stageira, Chalcidice, in 384 BC, about 55 km (34 mi) east of modern-day Thessaloniki.[4] His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was trained and educated as a member of the aristocracy. At about the age of eighteen, he went to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. Aristotle remained at the academy for nearly twenty years before quitting Athens in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure reports that he was disappointed with the direction the academy took after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus upon his death, although it is possible that he feared anti-Macedonian sentiments and left before Plato had died.[5] He then traveled with Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. While in Asia, Aristotle traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Hermias's adoptive daughter (or niece) Pythias. She bore him a daughter, whom they named Pythias. Soon after Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander the Great in 343 BC.[6] Early Islamic portrayal of AristotleAristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. In his Politics, Aristotle states that only one thing could justify monarchy, and that was if the virtue of the king and his family were greater than the virtue of the rest of the citizens put together. Tactfully, he included the young prince and his father in that category. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and his attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'.[7] By 335 BC he had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stageira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. According to the Suda, he also had an eromenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.[8] It is during this period in Athens from 335 to 323 BC when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.[6] Aristotle wrote many dialogues, only fragments of which survived. The works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication, as they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, ####physics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) and Poetics. Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, ####physics, politics, economics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge. It has been suggested that Aristotle was probably the last person to know everything there was to be known in his own time.[9] Near the end of Alexander's life, Alexander began to suspect plots against himself, and threatened Aristotle in letters. Aristotle had made no secret of his contempt for Alexander's pretense of divinity, and the king had executed Aristotle's grandnephew Callisthenes as a traitor. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but there is little evidence for this.[10] Upon Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens once again flared. Eurymedon the hierophant denounced Aristotle for not holding the gods in honor. Aristotle fled the city to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, explaining, "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy,"[11] a reference to Athens's prior trial and execution of Socrates. However, he died in Euboea of natural causes within the year (in 322 BC). Aristotle named chief executor his student Antipater and left a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.[12] Logic Aristotle portrayed in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle as a 15th-century-A.D. scholarMain article: Term logic For more details on this topic, see Non-Aristotelian logic. With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that Aristotle's theory of logic completely accounted for the core of deductive inference. History Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'".[13] However, Plato reports that syntax was devised before him, by Prodicus of Ceos, who was concerned by the correct use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from dialectics; the earlier philosophers made frequent use of concepts like reductio ad absurdum in their discussions, but never truly understood the logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic; although he had a reasonable conception of a deducting system, he could never actually construct one and relied instead on his dialectic.[14] Plato believed that deduction would simply follow from premises, hence he focused on maintaining solid premises so that the conclusion would logically follow. Consequently, Plato realized that a method for obtaining conclusions would be most beneficial. He never succeeded in devising such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book Sophist, where he introduced his division method.[15] Analytics and the Organon Main article: Organon What we today call Aristotelian logic, Aristotle himself would have labeled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books in about the early 1st century AD: 1.Categories 2.On Interpretation 3.Prior Analytics 4.Posterior Analytics 5.Topics 6.On Sophistical Refutations The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correctness rules of reasoning. There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the Organon, namely the fourth book of ####physics..[14] Aristotle's scientific method Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms.For more details on this topic, see Aristotle's theory of universals. Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle, however, found the universal in particular things, which he called the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their prototype or exemplar. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) to a contemplation of particular imitations of these. For Aristotle, "form" still refers to the unconditional basis of phenomena but is "instantiated" in a particular substance (see Universals and particulars, below). In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both inductive and deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive from a priori principles.[16] In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. In modern times, the scope of philosophy has become limited to more generic or abstract inquiries, such as ethics and ####physics, in which logic plays a major role. Today's philosophy tends to exclude empirical study of the natural world by means of the scientific method. In contrast, Aristotle's philosophical endeavors encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. In the larger sense of the word, Aristotle makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (####physics 1025b25). By practical science, he means ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; by theoretical science, he means physics, mathematics and ####physics. If logic (or "analytics") is regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, the divisions of Aristotelian philosophy would consist of: (1) Logic; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including ####physics, Physics, Mathematics, (3) Practical Philosophy and (4) Poetical Philosophy. In the period between his two stays in Athens, between his times at the Academy and the Lyceum, Aristotle conducted most of the scientific thinking and research for which he is renowned today. In fact, most of Aristotle's life was devoted to the study of the objects of natural science. Aristotle's ####physics contains observations on the nature of numbers but he made no original contributions to mathematics. He did, however, perform original research in the natural sciences, e.g., botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, meteorology, and several other sciences. Aristotle's writings on science are largely qualitative, as opposed to quantitative. Beginning in the 16th century, scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sciences, and Aristotle's work in this area was deemed hopelessly inadequate. His failings were largely due to the absence of concepts like mass, velocity, force and temperature. He had a conception of speed and temperature, but no quantitative understanding of them, which was partly due to the absence of basic experimental devices, like clocks and thermometers. His writings provide an account of many scientific observations, a mixture of precocious accuracy and curious errors. For example, in his History of Animals he claimed that human males have more teeth than females.[17] In a similar vein, John Philoponus, and later Galileo, showed by simple experiments that Aristotle's theory that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.[18] On the other hand, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out (correctly, even if such reasoning was bound to be dismissed for a long time) that, given "current astronomical demonstrations" that "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then...the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."[19] In places, Aristotle goes too far in deriving 'laws of the universe' from simple observation and over-stretched reason. Today's scientific method assumes that such thinking without sufficient facts is ineffective, and that discerning the validity of one's hypothesis requires far more rigorous experimentation than that which Aristotle used to support his laws. Aristotle also had some scientific blind spots. He posited a geocentric cosmology that we may discern in selections of the ####physics, which was widely accepted up until the 16th century. From the 3rd century to the 16th century, the dominant view held that the Earth was the center of the universe (geocentrism). Since he was perhaps the philosopher most respected by European thinkers during and after the Renaissance, these thinkers often took Aristotle's erroneous positions as given, which held back science in this epoch.[20] However, Aristotle's scientific shortcomings should not mislead one into forgetting his great advances in the many scientific fields. For instance, he founded logic as a formal science and created foundations to biology that were not superseded for two millennia. Moreover, he introduced the fundamental notion that nature is composed of things that change and that studying such changes can provide useful knowledge of underlying constants. Physics Main article: Physics (Aristotle) The five elements Main article: Classical element Concerning the make up of matter, Aristotle followed prior Greek philosophy with an adapted theory of elements. He was not an "atomist" like Democritus. In particular he proposed a fifth element, aether, in addition to the more common four. Fire, which is hot and dry. Earth, which is cold and dry. Air, which is hot and wet. Water, which is cold and wet. Aether, which is the divine substance that makes up the heavenly spheres and heavenly bodies (stars and planets). Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place; the earth at the centre of the universe, then water, then air, then fire. When they are out of their natural place they have natural motion, requiring no external cause, which is towards that place; so bodies sink in water, air bubbles rise up, rain falls, flame rises in air. The heavenly element has perpetual circular motion. Motion Main article: potentiality and actuality Motion in Aristotle is defined in his Physics in a way which is quite different from modern science, and Aristotle's understanding of motion is closely connected to his actuality-potentiality distinction (see below concerning ####physics). Taken literally, Aristotle defines motion as the actuality of a potentiality as such.[21] What Aristotle meant is the subject of several different interpretations, but because actuality and potentiality are normally opposites in Aristotle, interpreters either say that the wording which has come down to us is wrong, or that the addition of the "as such" to the definition is critical to understanding it.[22] Causality, The Four Causes Main article: Four causes Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood, and the material cause of a car is rubber and steel. It is not about action. It does not mean one domino knocks over another domino. The formal cause tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put the formal cause according to which a statue or a domino, is made is the idea existing in the first place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in the matter. Formal cause could only refer to the essential quality of causation. A more simple example of the formal cause is the blueprint or plan that one has before making or causing a human made object to exist. The efficient cause is that from which the change or the ending of the change first starts. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. More simply again that which immediately sets the thing in motion. So take the two dominos this time of equal weighting, the first is knocked over causing the second also to fall over. This is effectively efficient cause. The final cause is that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or telos is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve, or it is that from which and that to which the change is. This also covers modern ideas of mental causation involving such psychological causes as volition, need, motivation or motives, rational, irrational, ethical, and all that gives purpose to behavior. Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. (Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or influence of cause upon effect). Moreover, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects; its presence and absence may result in different outcomes. Simply it is the goal or purpose that brings about an event (not necessarily a mental goal). Taking our two dominos, it requires someone to intentionally knock the dominos over as they cannot fall themselves. Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect. Optics Aristotle held more accurate theories on some optical concepts than other philosophers of his day. The earliest known written evidence of a camera obscura can be found in Aristotle's documentation of such a device in 350 BC in Problemata. Aristotle's apparatus contained a dark chamber that had a single small hole, or aperture, to allow for sunlight to enter. Aristotle used the device to make observations of the sun and noted that no matter what shape the hole was, the sun would still be correctly displayed as a round object. In modern cameras, this is analogous to the diaphragm. Aristotle also made the observation that when the distance between the aperture and the surface with the image increased, the image was magnified.[23] Chance and spontaneity According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance. There is also more specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that can only apply to human beings, since it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to Aristotle, luck must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance".[24] ####physics Statue of Aristotle (1915) by Cipri Adolf Bermann at the University of Freiburg im BreisgauMain article: ####physics (Aristotle) Aristotle defines ####physics as "the knowledge of immaterial being," or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." He refers to ####physics as "first philosophy", as well as "the theologic science." Substance, potentiality and actuality See also: Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle) Aristotle examines the concept of substance and essence (ousia) in his ####physics, Book VII and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form. As he proceeds to the book VIII, he concludes that the matter of the substance is the substratum or the stuff of which it is composed, e.g. the matter of the house are the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house. While the form of the substance, is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia (see also predicables). The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.[25] With regard to the change (kinesis) and its causes now, as he defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b-320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: 1) growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; 2) locomotion, which is change in space; and 3) alteration, which is change in quality. The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) plant, and if is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfillment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do. "For that for the sake of which a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see."[26] In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same thing.[27] Universals and particulars Main article: Aristotle's theory of universals Aristotle's predecessor, Plato, argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property, or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Bertrand Russell is a contemporary philosopher that agreed with Plato on the existence of "uninstantiated universals". Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated. Aristotle argued that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. According to Aristotle, if a universal exists, either as a particular or a relation, then there must have been, must be currently, or must be in the future, something on which the universal can be predicated. Consequently, according to Aristotle, if it is not the case that some universal can be predicated to an object that exists at some period of time, then it does not exist. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. As Plato spoke of the world of the forms, a location where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms. Biology and medicine In Aristotelian science, most especially in biology, things he saw himself have stood the test of time better than his retelling of the reports of others, which contain error and superstition. He dissected animals, but not humans and his ideas on how the human body works have been almost entirely superseded. Empirical research program Octopus swimming Torpedo fuscomaculata Leopard sharkAristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work has survived in some detail. Aristotle certainly did research on the natural history of Lesbos, and the surrounding seas and neighbouring areas. The works that reflect this research, such as History of Animals, Generation of Animals, and Parts of Animals, contain some observations and interpretations, along with sundry myths and mistakes. The most striking passages are about the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and available from the catches of fishermen. His observations on catfish, electric fish (Torpedo) and angler-fish are detailed, as is his writing on cephalopods, namely, Octopus, Sepia (cuttlefish) and the paper nautilus (Argonauta argo). His description of the hectocotyl arm was about two thousand years ahead of its time, and widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the 19th century. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selachē (selachians).[28] Another good example of his methods comes from the Generation of Animals in which Aristotle describes breaking open fertilized chicken eggs at intervals to observe when visible organs were generated. He gave accurate descriptions of ruminants' four-chambered fore-stomachs, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark Mustelus mustelus.[29] Classification of living things Aristotle's classification of living things contains some elements which still existed in the 19th century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals with blood' and 'animals without blood' (he was not to know that complex invertebrates do make use of haemoglobin, but of a different kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood were divided into live-bearing (humans and mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ('animals without blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In some respects, this incomplete classification is better than that of Linnaeus, who crowded the invertebrata together into two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms). For Charles Singer, "Nothing is more remarkable than [Aristotle's] efforts to [exhibit] the relationships of living things as a scala naturae"[28] Aristotle's History of Animals classified organisms in relation to a hierarchical "Ladder of Life" (scala naturae), placing them according to complexity of structure and function so that higher organisms showed greater vitality and ability to move.[30] Aristotle believed that intellectual purposes, i.e., final causes, guided all natural processes. Such a teleological view gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed data as an expression of formal design. Noting that "no animal has, at the same time, both tusks and horns," and "a single-hooved animal with two horns I have never seen," Aristotle suggested that Nature, giving no animal both horns and tusks, was staving off vanity, and giving creatures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary. Noting that ruminants had multiple stomachs and weak teeth, he supposed the first was to compensate for the latter, with Nature trying to preserve a type of balance.[31] In a similar fashion, Aristotle believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to man, the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being.[32] His system had eleven grades, arranged according "to the degree to which they are infected with potentiality", expressed in their form at birth. The highest animals laid warm and wet creatures alive, the lowest bore theirs cold, dry, and in thick eggs. Aristotle also held that the level of a creature's perfection was reflected in its form, but not preordained by that form. Ideas like this, and his ideas about souls, are not regarded as science at all in modern times. He placed emphasis on the type(s) of soul an organism possessed, asserting that plants possess a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth, animals a vegetative and a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation, and humans a vegetative, a sensitive, and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection.[33] Aristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.[34] Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.[35] Successor: Theophrastus Frontispiece to a 1644 version of the expanded and illustrated edition of Historia Plantarum (ca. 1200), which was originally written around 200 BCMain articles: Theophrastus and Historia Plantarum Aristotle's successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany—the History of Plants—which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the Middle Ages. Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as carpos for fruit, and pericarpion for seed vessel. Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial processes, and relying on Aristotle's concept of the efficient cause. Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery was lost in later ages.[36] Influence on Hellenistic medicine For more details on this topic, see Medicine in ancient Greece. After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.[37] It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not.[38] Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr claimed that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."[39] Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly.[40] Practical philosophy Ethics Main article: Aristotelian ethics Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nichomachean Ethics. Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (normally translated as soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral (or ethical) virtue (or excellence).[41] Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (phronēsis) and their intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards the highest possible ethical virtue, that of wisdom.[42] Politics Main article: Politics (Aristotle) In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".[43] He is also famous for his statement that "man is by nature a political animal." Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.[44] The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different to Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."[45] Rhetoric and poetics Main articles: Rhetoric (Aristotle) and Poetics (Aristotle) Aristotle considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry and music to be imitative, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.[46] For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.[47] Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.[48] While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, spectacle, and lyric poetry.[49] The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.[50] Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.[51] Loss and preservation of his works See also: Corpus Aristotelicum Modern scholarship reveals that Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization[52] from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with an intent for subsequent publication, the surviving works do not appear to have been so.[52] Rather the surviving works mostly resemble lectures unintended for publication.[52] The authenticity of a portion of the surviving works as originally Aristotelian is also today held suspect, with some books duplicating or summarizing each other, the authorship of one book questioned and another book considered to be unlikely Aristotle's at all.[52] Some of the individual works within the corpus, including the Constitution of Athens, are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's "school," perhaps compiled under his direction or supervision. Others, such as On Colors, may have been produced by Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., Theophrastus and Straton. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the De Plantis, possibly by Nicolaus of Damascus. Other works in the corpus include medieval palmistries and astrological and magical texts whose connections to Aristotle are purely fanciful and self-promotional.[53] According to a distinction that originates with Aristotle himself, his writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric" and the "esoteric".[54] Most scholars have understood this as a distinction between works Aristotle intended for the public (exoteric), and the more technical works (esoteric) intended for the narrower audience of Aristotle's students and other philosophers who were familiar with the jargon and issues typical of the Platonic and Aristotelian schools. Another common assumption is that none of the exoteric works is extant – that all of Aristotle's extant writings are of the esoteric kind. Current knowledge of what exactly the exoteric writings were like is scant and dubious, though many of them may have been in dialogue form. (Fragments of some of Aristotle's dialogues have survived.) Perhaps it is to these that Cicero refers when he characterized Aristotle's writing style as "a river of gold";[55] it is hard for many modern readers to accept that one could seriously so admire the style of those works currently available to us.[56] However, some modern scholars have warned that we cannot know for certain that Cicero's praise was reserved specifically for the exoteric works; a few modern scholars have actually admired the concise writing style found in Aristotle's extant works.[57] The surviving texts of Aristotle are technical treatises from within Aristotle's school, as opposed to the dialogues and other "exoteric" texts he published more widely during his lifetime. In some cases, the Aristotelian texts were likely left in different versions and contexts (as in the overlapping parts of the Eudemian Ethics and Nicomachean Ethics), or in smaller units that could be incorporated into larger books in different ways. Because of this, a posthumous compiler and publisher may sometimes have played a significant role in arranging the text into the form we know. One major question in the history of Aristotle's works, then, is how were the exoteric writings all lost, and how did the ones we now possess come to us?[58] The story of the original manuscripts of the esoteric treatises is described by Strabo in his Geography and Plutarch in his Parallel Lives.[59] The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to his successor Theophrastus, who in turn willed them to Neleus of Scepsis. Neleus supposedly took the writings from Athens to Scepsis, where his heirs let them languish in a cellar until the 1st century BC, when Apellicon of Teos discovered and purchased the manuscripts, bringing them back to Athens. According to the story, Apellicon tried to repair some of the damage that was done during the manuscripts' stay in the basement, introducing a number of errors into the text. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla occupied Athens in 86 BC, he carried off the library of Apellicon to Rome, where they were first published in 60 BC by the grammarian Tyrannion of Amisus and then by philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes.[60][61] Carnes Lord attributes the popular belief in this story to the fact that it provides "the most plausible explanation for the rapid eclipse of the Peripatetic school after the middle of the third century, and for the absence of widespread knowledge of the specialized treatises of Aristotle throughout the Hellenistic period, as well as for the sudden reappearance of a flourishing Aristotelianism during the first century B.C."[62] Lord voices a number of reservations concerning this story, however. First, the condition of the texts is far too good for them to have suffered considerable damage followed by Apellicon's inexpert attempt at repair. Second, there is "incontrovertible evidence," Lord says, that the treatises were in circulation during the time in which Strabo and Plutarch suggest they were confined within the cellar in Scepsis. Third, the definitive edition of Aristotle's texts seems to have been made in Athens some fifty years before Andronicus supposedly compiled his. And fourth, ancient library catalogues predating Andronicus' intervention list an Aristotelian corpus quite similar to the one we currently possess. Lord sees a number of post-Aristotelian interpolations in the Politics, for example, but is generally confident that the work has come down to us relatively intact. As the influence of the falsafa grew in the West, in part due to Gerard of Cremona's translations and the spread of Averroism, the demand for Aristotle's works grew. William of Moerbeke translated a number of them into Latin. When Thomas Aquinas wrote his theology, working from Moerbeke's translations, the demand for Aristotle's writings grew and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe, and ultimately revitalizing European thought through Muslim influence in Spain to fan the embers of the Renaissance.[citation needed] Legacy Portrait of Aristotle. Pentelic marble, copy of the Imperial Period (1st or 2nd century) of a lost bronze sculpture made by LysipposDevelopment of logic Twenty-three hundred years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He was the founder of formal logic,[63] pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.[64][65] Despite these accolades, many of Aristotle's errors held back science considerably. Bertrand Russell notes that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell also refers to Aristotle's ethics as "repulsive", and calls his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell notes that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers how large of an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.[6] Later Greek philosophers The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Meno, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"[66] Influence on Christian theologians Aristotle is referred to as "The Philosopher" by Scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas. See Summa Theologica, Part I, Question 3, etc. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having at his beddes heed Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed, Of aristotle and his philosophie,[67] The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in the first circles of hell, I saw the Master there of those who know, Amid the philosophic family, By all admired, and by all reverenced; There Plato too I saw, and Socrates, Who stood beside him closer than the rest.[68] Views on women Main article: Aristotle's views on women Aristotle's analysis of procreation is frequently criticized on the grounds that it presupposes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element; it is on these grounds that Aristotle is considered by some feminist critics to have been a misogynist.[69] On the other hand, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that a society cannot be happy unless women are happy too: In places like Sparta where the lot of women is bad, there can only be half-happiness in society.(see Rhetoric 1.5.6) Post-Enlightenment thinkers The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.[70] However implausible this is, it is certainly the case that Aristotle's rigid separation of action from production, and his justification of the subservience of slaves and others to the virtue – or arete – of a few justified the ideal of aristocracy. It is Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.[71] List of works Main article: Corpus Aristotelicum The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through Mediæval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works. See also Aristotelianism Aristotelian ethics Aristotelian physics Aristotelian view of God List of writers influenced by Aristotle Corpus Aristotelicum Conimbricenses Hylomorphism Philia Phronesis

Quote: سوفقليس (Σοφοκλής باللغة اليونانية) (ولد حوالي سنة 496 ق.م. بأثينا وتوفي سنة 405 ق.م.) أحد أعظم ثلاثة كتاب تراجيديا إغريقية، مع ايسخسلوس ويوربيديس. وحسب سودا فقد كتب 123 مسرحية، في المسابقات المسرحية في مهرجان ديونيسيوس، حيث كل تقدمة من أي كاتب كان يجب أن تتضمن أربع مسرحيات، ثلاث تراجيديات بالإضافة إلى مسرحية ساخرة). وقد نال الجائزة الأولى (حوالي عشرين مرة) أكثر من أي كاتب آخر، وحصل على المركز الثاني في جميع المسابقات الأخرى. فقط سبعة من تراجيدياته بقت إلى يومنا هذا. [عدل] أهم أعماله [عدل] مسرحيات طيبة (سلسلة أوديب) أنتيغوني أوديب ملكا أوديب في كلونا [عدل] مسرحيات أخرى إجاكس إلكترا فيلوكتيتس

Quote: Sophocles (pronounced /ˈsɒfəkliːz/ Σοφοκλῆς Sophoklēs, his name was very likely pronounced /sopʰoklɛ̂ːs/; (c. 497/6 BC - winter 406/5 BC)[1] was the second of the three ancient Greek tragedians whose work has survived. His first plays were written later than those of Aeschylus and earlier than those of Euripides. According to the Suda, a 10th century encyclopedia, Sophocles wrote 123 plays during the course of his life, but only seven have survived in a complete form: Ajax, Antigone, Trachinian Women, Oedipus the King, Electra, Philoctetes and Oedipus at Colonus.[2] For almost 50 years, Sophocles was the most-feted playwright in the dramatic competitions of the city-state of Athens that took place during the religious festivals of the Lenaea and the Dionysia. Sophocles competed in around 30 competitions; he won perhaps 24 and was never judged lower than second place; in comparison, Aeschylus won 14 competitions and was defeated by Sophocles at times, while Euripides won only 4 competitions.[3] The most famous of Sophocles' tragedies are those concerning Oedipus and Antigone: these are often known as the Theban plays, although each play was actually a part of different tetralogy, the other members of which are now lost. Sophocles influenced the development of the drama, most importantly by adding a third actor and thereby reducing the importance of the chorus in the presentation of the plot. He also developed his characters to a greater extent than earlier playwrights such as Aeschylus.[4]

Quote: Sophocles, the son of Sophilos, was a wealthy member of the rural deme (small community) of Colonus Hippius in Attica, which would later become a setting for one of his plays, and he was probably born there.[1][5] His birth took place a few years before the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE: the exact year is unclear, although 497/6 is perhaps most likely.[1][6] Sophocles' first artistic triumph was in 468 BCE when he took first prize in the Dionysia theatre competition over the reigning master of Athenian drama, Aeschylus.[1][7] According to Plutarch the victory came under unusual circumstances. Instead of following the custom of choosing judges by lot, the archon asked Cimon and the other strategoi present to decide the victor of the contest. Plutarch further contends that Aeschylus soon left for Sicily following this loss to Sophocles.[8] Although Plutarch says that this was Sophocles' first production, it is now thought that this is an embellishment of the truth and that his first production was most likely in 470 BCE.[5] Triptolemus was probably one of the plays that Sophocles presented at this festival.[5] Sophocles became a man of importance in the public halls of Athens as well as in the theatres. At the age of 16, he was chosen to lead the paean, a choral chant to a god, celebrating the decisive Greek sea victory over the Persians at the Battle of Salamis. The rather insufficient information about Sophocles’ civic life implies he was a well-liked man who participated in activities in society and showed remarkable artistic ability. He was also elected as one of ten strategoi, high executive officials that commanded the armed forces, as a junior colleague of Pericles. Sophocles was born extremely wealthy (his father was a wealthy armour manufacturer) and was highly educated throughout his entire life. Early in his career, the politician Cimon might have been one of his patrons, although if he was there was no ill will borne by Pericles, Cimon's rival, when Cimon was ostracized in 461 B.C.[1] In 443/2 he served as one of the Hellenotamiai, or treasurers of Athena, helping to manage the finances of the city during the political ascendancy of Pericles.[1] According to the Vita Sophoclis he served as a general in the Athenian campaign against Samos, which had revolted in 441 BCE; he was supposed to have been elected to his post as the result of his production of Antigone.[9] In 420 he welcomed and set up an altar for the image of Asclepius at his house, when the deity was introduced to Athens. For this he was given the posthumous epithet Dexion (receiver) by the Athenians.[10] He was also elected, in 413 BCE, to be one of the commissioners crafting a response to the catastrophic destruction of the Athenian expeditionary force in Sicily during the Peloponnesian War.[11] Sophocles died at the age of ninety or ninety-one in the winter of 406/5 BCE, having seen within his lifetime both the Greek triumph in the Persian Wars and the terrible bloodletting of the Peloponnesian War.[1] As with many famous men in classical antiquity, Sophocles' death inspired a number of apocryphal stories about the cause. Perhaps the most famous is the suggestion that he died from the strain of trying to recite a long sentence from his Antigone without pausing to take a breath. Another account suggests he choked while eating grapes at the Anthesteria festival in Athens. A third account holds that he died of happiness after winning his final victory at the City Dionysia.[12] A few months later, the comic poet wrote this eulogy in his play titled The Muses: "Blessed is Sophocles, who had a long life, was a man both happy and talented, and the writer of many good tragedies; and he ended his life well without suffering any misfortune."[13] This is somewhat ironic, for according to some accounts his own sons tried to have him declared incompetent near the end of his life; he is said to have refuted their charge in court by reading from his as yet unproduced Oedipus at Colonus.[14] One of his sons, Iophon, and a grandson, also called Sophocles, both followed in his footsteps to become playwrights.[15] [edit] Sophocles as erastês It was common in fifth-century Greece for men of the upper classes to cultivate sexual relationships with adolescent boys. Sophocles was one such participant in the relationship between the erastês ("lover") and eromenos ("beloved").[16] Athenaeus reports two stories of this kind, one, if authentic, from a contemporary: a symposium in which Sophocles cleverly steals a kiss from the boy sitting next to him,[17] and another in which Sophocles entices a young boy to have sex outside the walls of Athens, and the boy takes Sophocles' cloak.[18] According to Plutarch, when he caught Sophocles admiring a young boy's looks, Pericles rebuked him for neglecting his duty as a strategos.[19] Sophocles' sexual appetite reportedly lasted well into old age. In The Republic (1.329b-329c) Plato tells us that when he finally succumbed to impotence, Sophocles was glad to be free of his "raging and savage beast of a master."[20] It is debatable how far such anecdotes were invented as references to this well-known passage. In yet another such account, a satirical one by Machon involving a hetaira known for her ironical sense of humor, we are told that, "Demophon, Sophocles' minion, when still a youth had Nico, already old and surnamed the she-goat; they say she had very fine buttocks. One day he begged of her to lend them to him. 'Very well,' she said with a smile,—'Take from me, dear, what you give to Sophocles.'"[21][22] [edit] Works and legacy [show]v • d • ePlays by Sophocles Ajax · Antigone · Women of Trachis · Electra · Oedipus the King · Philoctetes · Oedipus at Colonus Portrait of the Greek actor Euiaon in Sophocles' Andromeda, c. 430 BCE.Among Sophocles' earliest innovations was the addition of a third actor, which further reduced the role of the chorus and created greater opportunity for character development and conflict between characters.[4] Aeschylus, who dominated Athenian playwrighting during Sophocles' early career, followed suit and adopted the third character into his own work towards the end of his life.[4] Aristotle credits Sophocles with the introduction of skenographia, or scenery-painting. It was not until after the death of the old master Aeschylus in 456 BCE that Sophocles became the pre-eminent playwright in Athens.[1] Thereafter, Sophocles emerged victorious in dramatic competitions at 18 Dionysia and 6 Lenaia festivals.[1] In addition to innovations in dramatic structure, Sophocles' work is also known for its deeper development of characters than earlier playwrights.[4] His reputation was such that foreign rulers invited him to attend their courts, although unlike Aeschylus who died in Sicily, or Euripides who spent time in Macedon, Sophocles never accepted any of these invitations.[1] Aristotle used Sophocles' Oedipus the King in his Poetics (c. 335 BCE) as an example of the highest achievement in tragedy, which suggests the high esteem in which his work was held by later Greeks.[23] Only two of the seven surviving plays[24] can be dated securely: Philoctetes (409 BCE) and Oedipus at Colonus (401 BCE, staged after Sophocles' death by his grandson). Of the others, Electra shows stylistic similarities to these two plays, which suggests that it was probably written in the latter part of his career. Ajax, Antigone and The Trachiniae are generally thought to be among his early works, again based on stylistic elements, with Oedipus the King coming in Sophocles' middle period. Most of Sophocles' plays show an undercurrent of early fatalism and the beginnings of Socratic logic as a mainstay for the long tradition of Greek tragedy.[25][26] [edit] The Theban plays The Theban plays consist of three plays: Antigone, Oedipus the King (also called Oedipus Tyrannus or Oedipus Rex), and Oedipus at Colonus. All three plays concern the fate of Thebes during and after the reign of King Oedipus.[27] They have often been published under a single cover.[28] Sophocles, however, wrote the three plays for separate festival competitions, many years apart. Not only are the Theban plays not a true trilogy (three plays presented as a continuous narrative) but they are not even an intentional series and contain some inconsistencies among them.[27] He also wrote other plays having to do with Thebes, such as The Progeny, of which only fragments have survived.[29] [edit] Subjects Each of the plays relates to the tale of the mythological Oedipus, who killed his father and married his mother without knowledge that they were his parents. His family is fated to be doomed for three generations. In Oedipus the King, Oedipus is the protagonist. Oedipus' infanticide is planned by his parents, Laius and Jocasta, to avert him fulfilling a prophecy ; in truth, the servant entrusted with the infanticide passes the infant on through a series of intermediaries to a childless couple, who adopt him not knowing his history. Oedipus eventually learns of the Delphic Oracle's prophecy of him, that he would kill his father and marry his mother ; Oedipus attempts to flee his fate without harming his parents (at this point, he does not know that he is adopted). Oedipus meets a man at a crossroads accompanied by servants; Oedipus and the man fought, and Oedipus killed the man. (This man was his father, Laius, not that anyone apart from the gods knew this at the time). He becomes the ruler of Thebes after solving the riddle of the sphinx and in the process, marries the widowed Queen, his mother Jocasta. Thus the stage is set for horrors. When the truth comes out, folling from another true but confusing prophecy from Delphi, Jocasta commits suicide, Oedipus blinds himself and leaves Thebes, and the children are left to sort out the consequences themselves (which provides the grounds for the later parts of the cycle of plays). In Oedipus at Colonus, the banished Oedipus and his daughters Antigone and Ismene arrive at the town of Colonus where they encounter Theseus, King of Athens. Oedipus dies and strife begins between his sons Polyneices and Eteocles. In Antigone the protagonist is Oedipus' daughter. Antigone is faced with the choice of allowing her brother Polyneices' body to remain unburied, outside the city walls, exposed to the ravages of wild animals, or to bury him and face death. The king of the land, Creon, has forbidden the burial of Polyneices for he was a traitor to the city. Antigone decides to bury his body and face the consequences of her actions. Creon sentences her to death. Eventually, Creon is convinced to free Antigone from her punishment, but his decision comes too late and Antigone commits suicide. Her suicide triggers the suicide of two others close to King Creon: his son, Haemon, who was to wed Antigone, and his wife who commits suicide after losing her only surviving son. [edit] Composition and inconsistencies The plays were written across thirty-six years of Sophocles' career and were not composed in chronological order, but instead were written in the order Antigone, Oedipus the King, and Oedipus at Colonus. Nor were they composed as a trilogy - a group of plays to be performed together, but are the remaining parts of three different groups of plays. As a result, there are some inconsistencies: notably, Creon is the undisputed king at the end of Oedipus the King and, in consultation with Apollo, single-handedly makes the decision to expel Oedipus from Thebes. Creon is also instructed to look after Oedipus' daughters Antigone and Ismene at the end of Oedipus the King. By contrast, in the other plays there is some struggle with Oedipus' sons Eteocles and Polynices in regard to the succession. In Oedipus at Colonus, Sophocles attempts to work these inconsistencies into a coherent whole: Ismene explains that, in light of their tainted family lineage, her brothers were at first willing to cede the throne to Creon. Nevertheless, they eventually decided to take charge of the monarchy, with each brother disputing the other's right to succeed. In addition to being in a clearly more powerful position in Oedipus at Colonus, Eteocles and Polynices are also culpable: they condemn their father to exile, which is one of his bitterest charges against them.[27] [edit] Other plays Other than the three Theban plays, there are four surviving plays by Sophocles: Ajax, The Trachiniae, Electra, and Philoctetes, the last of which won first prize.[30] Ajax focuses on the proud hero of the Trojan War, Telamonian Ajax, who is driven to treachery and eventually suicide. Ajax becomes gravely upset when Achilles’ armor is presented to Odysseus instead of himself. Despite their enmity toward him, Odysseus persuades the kings Menelaus and Agamemnon to grant Ajax a proper burial. The Trachiniae (named for the Trachinian women who make up the chorus) dramatizes Deianeira's accidentally killing Heracles after he had completed his famous twelve labors. Tricked into thinking it is a love charm, Deianeira applies poison to an article of Heracles' clothing; this poisoned robe causes Heracles to die an excruciating death. Upon learning the truth, Deianeira commits suicide. Electra Corresponds roughly to the plot of Aeschylus' Libation Bearers. It details how Electra and Orestes' avenge their father Agamemnon's murder by Clytemnestra and Aegisthus. Philoctetes retells the story of Philoctetes, an archer who had been abandoned on Lemnos by the rest of the Greek fleet while on the way to Troy. After learning that they cannot win the Trojan War without Philoctetes' bow, the Greeks send Odysseus and Neoptolemus to retrieve him; due to the Greeks' earlier treachery, however, Philoctetes refuses to rejoin the army. It is only Heracles' deus ex machina appearance that persuades Philoctetes to go to Troy. [edit] Fragmentary plays Fragments of The Tracking Satyrs (Ichneutae) were discovered in Egypt in 1907.[31] These amount to about half of the play, making it the best preserved satyr play after Euripides' Cyclops, which survives in its entirety.[31] Fragments of The Progeny (Epigonoi) were discovered in April 2005 by classicists at Oxford University with the help of infrared technology previously used for satellite imaging. The tragedy tells the story of the second siege of Thebes.[29] A number of other Sophoclean works have survived only in fragments, including: Aias Lokros (Ajax the Locrian) Akhaiôn Syllogos (The Gathering of the Achaeans) Aleadae (The Sons of Aleus) Creusa Eurypylus Hermione Inachos Lacaenae (Lacaenian Women) Manteis or Polyidus (The Prophets or Polyidus) Nauplios Katapleon (Nauplius' Arrival) Nauplios Pyrkaeus (Nauplius' Fires) Niobe Oeneus Oenomaus Poimenes (The Shepherds) Polyxene Syndeipnoi (The Diners, or, The Banqueters) Tereus Thyestes Troilus Phaedra Triptolemus Tyro Keiromene (Tyro Shorn) Tyro Anagnorizomene (Tyro Rediscovered). [edit] Sophocles' view of his own work There is a passage of Plutarch's tract De Profectibus in Virtute 7 in which Sophocles discusses his own growth as a writer. A likely source of this material for Plutarch was the Epidemiae of Ion of Chios, a book that recorded many conversations of Sophocles. This book is a likely candidate to have contained Sophocles' discourse on his own development because Ion was a friend of Sophocles, and the book is known to have been used by Plutarch.[32] Though some interpretations of Plutarch's words suggest that Sophocles says that he imitated Aeschylus, the translation does not fit grammatically, nor does the interpretation that Sophocles said that he was making fun of Aeschylus' works. C. M. Bowra argues for the following translation of the line: "After practising to the full the bigness of Aeschylus, then the painful ingenuity of my own invention, now in the third stage I am changing to the kind of diction which is most expressive of character and best."[33] Here Sophocles says that he has completed a stage of Aeschylus' work, meaning that he went through a phase of imitating Aeschylus' style but is finished with that. Sophocles' opinion of Aeschylus was mixed. He certainly respected him enough to imitate his work early on in his career, but he had reservations about Aeschylus' style,[34] and thus did not keep his imitation up. Sophocles' first stage, in which he imitated Aeschylus, is marked by "Aeschylean pomp in the language".[35] Sophocles' second stage was entirely his own. He introduced new ways of evoking feeling out of an audience, like in his Ajax when he is mocked by Athene, then the stage is emptied so that he may commit suicide alone.[36] Sophocles mentions a third stage, distinct from the other two, in his discussion of his development. The third stage pays more heed to diction. His characters spoke in a way that was more natural to them and more expressive of their individual character feelings.[37]

Quote: ماذا تعني كلمة أوديب؟ كلمة أوديب كلمة يوناينة وتعني (صاحب الأقدام المتورمة) [عدل] أصل الأسطورة في العصر القديم كان هناك ملك إغريقي أنجب أبن يُدعى أوديب، وكانت من عادات الإغريق هو أن يقوموا بقراءة مستقبل أبناءهم عند ولادتهم، فقرأ الدجالين آنذاك مستقبل أوديب وقالوا للملك أن ابنه أوديب سيقوم بقتله ويتزوج من امرأته التي هي أم أوديب، فأمر الملك بأن يتولى أمر أوديب الحرس وذلك بقتله إلا أنهم قاموا بإعطاءه لمزارع لديهم وقام بتربيته كأمير. وفي أحد الأيام كان أوديب في حانة وكان فيها بعض الدجالين أو من يُطلق عليهم المستبصرون وذلك لأن إعتقادتهم بأنهم على اطلاع كامل على المُستقبل، فقرأ المستبصرون لأوديب مستقبله وقالوا له أن سيقتل أبوه ويتزوج أمه، فخاف أوديب اعتقاداً منه أنه سيقوم بقتل أباه المزارع وأمه زوجة المزارع لذا قرر أن يترك المدينة ويذهب إلى مدينة تُدعى مدينة ثيبس (مسقط رأسه). وقبل دخوله للمدينة كان هناك جسر للمرور، وأثناء عبوره لذلك الجسر واجه موكب ملك ثيبس (والده الحقيقي)، فطلب منه الحرس التنحي جانباً ليعبر الملك إلا أن الغرور الذي رباه عليه أباه المزارع جعله يرفض ذلك، فقتل الملك والحرس ولم يكن على معرفة بأن الشخص الذي قتله هو ملك ثيبس، عند وصوله إلى المدينة كان يمنعه من دخولها لعنة تدعى لعنة التنين سفنكس. وليتمكن أي أحد من دخول أو الخروج من هذه المدينة يلزم عليه حلّ هذا اللغز. استطاع اوديب بقدرته حلّ هذا اللغز وتخليص المدينة من اللعنة، ووصل أيضاً خبر مقتل ملك ثيبس فلم يكن هناك أجدر من أوديب البطل أن يخلف الملك، فتزوج أرملة الملك (أمه الحقيقة) وأنجب منها أبناء وبعد فترة انتشر الطاعون فأتى بمُستبصر ليعلمه ماسبب مايحدث فأجابه بأن هذه اللعنة هي بسبب أن الملك السابق قُتل ولم يؤخذ بثأره، فسأل أوديب زوجته عن أسباب مقتل زوجها وكانت تجيبه بأنه قاطع طريق قتله ولم تكن على علم بأن أوديب (زوجها/ابنها) هو من قتله. وبعد التحقيق والبحث جاء المزارع (والده) وأخبرهم الحقيقة كامله، وصُدمت الملكة وقالت إنها حصلت على ولد من الولد وزوج من الزوج، فشنقت نفسها وأما صدمة (عُقدة) أوديب كانت كبيره جداً لم يستطع تحملها ففقع عيناه الإثنتين بيده لأنه لم يتمكن من معرفة الحقيقة وهي أمامه.عقده اوديب هي ان ينمو عند الولد شكلا من اشكال الحب نحو امه ويشعر بابيه كمنافس له نحو الام والرغبه

Quote: عقدة أوديب من العقد النفسية التي تطلق على الطفل الذي يحب والدته ويتعلق بها لدرجة الغيرة على الام من الاب . وعقدة اوديب استوحاها العالم النفس (فرويد) من قصة يونانيه شهيره وهي قصة أوديب. وسوف يتم سرد القصة في السطور التالية بشكل مختصر: اوديب هو ابن لملك شهيرفي اليونان . وتحت هذا الملك مجموعة من الكهنه الذين اخبروه ان ابنه الصغير اوديب سوف يقتله عندما يكبر .فقرر الملك ان يقتل ابنه الطفل الصغير حيث امر احد جنوده ان يأخذاوديب الى الغابة ويقتله , فذهب الجندي ومعه اوديب الى الغابة ولكن لم تطاوعه نفسه على قتل طفل صغير, فترك الجندي اوديب في الغابة ورجع الى الملك واخبره انه قتل اوديب . اما اوديب الذي ترك في الغابة فقد وجده رجلا فقرر رعاية هذا الطفل المسكين . فكبر اوديب واصبح ذا شأن عظيم في القرية التي عاش بها . وكانت القرية التي يعيش بها اوديب على خلاف مع الملك( والد اوديب) . فقررت القرية ان ترسل جيوش لمواجهت الملك وجعلت اوديب هوقائد هذه الجيوش . وعلم الملك بأن هناك من يريد مهاجمته فاعد العدة لذلك . وتقابل الجيشان وتقابل اوديب مع والده في الحرب ,فقتل اوديب والده . وانتصر اوديب في المعركة . واصبح ملكا وتزوج من ارملة الملك السابق( امه) دون علم منه انها والدته ودون علم منها . وبعد ذلك علم اوديب انه قتل ابيه وتزوج امه . ففقع اوديب عينيه عقابا لنفسه على صنيعه. ويفسر (فرويد) زواج اوديب من امه . بأن حب الام فطري ولكن اوديب لم يترجم هذا الحب بالشكل الصحيح. _ برأيكم هل كل طفل يحب والدته يغار عليها من والده ؟

Quote: Oedipus (pronounced /ˈɛdɨpəs/ in American English and /ˈiːdɨpəs/ in British English; Greek: Οἰδίπους Oidípous meaning "swollen-footed") was a mythical Greek king of Thebes. He fulfilled a prophecy that said he would kill his father and marry his mother , and thus brought disaster on his city and family. This legend has been retold in many versions, and was used by Sigmund Freud to name the Oedipus complex.

Quote: Basics of myth Oedipus was the son of Laius and Jocasta, king and queen of Thebes. After having been married some time without children, his parents consulted the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi about their childlessness. The Oracle prophesied that if Jocasta should have a son, the son would kill her husband Laius and marry her. In an attempt to prevent this prophecy's fulfillment, when Jocasta indeed bore a son, Laius had his ankles pinned together so that he could not crawl, and gave the boy to a servant to abandon ("expose") on the nearby mountain. However, rather than leave the child to die of exposure, as Laius intended, the sympathetic servant passed the baby onto a shepherd from Corinth and then to another shepherd. Oedipus the infant eventually comes to the house of Polybus, king of Corinth and his queen, Merope, who adopt him as they are without children of their own. Little Oedipus/Oidipous is named after the swelling from the injuries to his feet and ankles. The word oedema (English) or edema (American English) is from this same Greek word for swelling: οἴδημα, or oedēma. Many years later, Oedipus is told by a drunk that Polybus is not his real father but when he asks his parents, they deny it. Oedipus seeks counsel from the same Delphic Oracle. The Oracle does not tell him the identity of his true parents but instead tells him that he is destined to kill his father and marry his mother. In his attempt to avoid the fate predicted by the Oracle, he decides to not return home to Corinth. Since it is near to Delphi, Oedipus decides to go to Thebes. As Oedipus travels he comes to the place where three roads meet, Davlia. Here he encounters a chariot, driven by his (unrecognized) birth-father, King Laius. They fight over who has the right to go first and Oedipus kills Laius in self defense, unwittingly fulfilling part of the prophecy. The only witness of the King's death was a slave who fled from a caravan of slaves also traveling on the road. Continuing his journey to Thebes, Oedipus encounters a Sphinx which would stop all those who traveled to Thebes and ask them a riddle. If the travelers were unable to answer correctly, they were killed and eaten by the sphinx; if they were successful, they would be able to continue their journey. The riddle was: "What walks on four feet in the morning, two in the afternoon and three at night?". Oedipus answers: "Man; as an infant, he crawls on all fours, as an adult, he walks on two legs and, in old age, he relies on a walking stick". Oedipus was the first to answer the riddle correctly. Having heard Oedipus' answer, the Sphinx is astounded and inexplicably kills itself by throwing itself into the sea, freeing Thebes. Grateful, the people of Thebes appoint Oedipus as their king and give him the recently widowed Queen Jocasta's hand in marriage. (The people of Thebes believed her husband had been killed while on a search for the answer to the Sphinx's riddle. They had no idea who the killer was.) The marriage of Oedipus and Jocasta fulfilled the rest of the prophecy. Oedipus and Jocasta have four children: two sons, Eteocles and Polynices (see Seven Against Thebes), and two daughters, Antigone and Ismene. Many years after the marriage of Oedipus and Jocasta, a plague of infertility strikes the city of Thebes; crops no longer grow to harvest and women do not bear children. Oedipus, in his hubris, asserts that he will end the pestilence. He sends Creon, Laius's brother, to the Oracle at Delphi, seeking guidance. When Creon returns, Oedipus hears that the murderer of the former King Laius must be found and either be killed or exiled. In a search for the identity of the killer, Oedipus follows Creon's suggestion and sends for the blind prophet, Tiresias, who warns him not to try to find the killer. In a heated exchange, Tiresias is provoked into exposing Oedipus himself as the killer, and the fact that Oedipus is living in shame because he does not know who his true parents are. Oedipus blames Creon for Tiresias telling Oedipus that he was the killer. Oedipus and Creon begin a heated argument. Jocasta enters and tries to calm Oedipus. She tries to comfort him by telling him about her first son and his supposed death. Oedipus becomes unnerved as he begins to think that he might have killed Laius and so brought about the plague. Suddenly, a messenger arrives from Corinth with the news that King Polybus has died. Oedipus is relieved concerning the prophecy, for it could no longer be fulfilled if Polybus, whom he thinks is his father, is now dead. Nonetheless, he is wary while his mother lives and does not wish to go. To ease the stress of the matter, the messenger then reveals that Oedipus was, in fact, adopted. Jocasta, finally realizing Oedipus' true identity, begs him to abandon his search for Laius's murderer. Oedipus misunderstands the motivation of her pleas, thinking that she was ashamed of him because he might have been the son of a slave. Jocasta then goes into the palace where she hangs herself. Oedipus seeks verification of the messenger's story from the very same herdsman who was supposed to have left Oedipus to die as a baby. From the herdsman, Oedipus learns that the infant raised as the adopted son of Polybus and Merope was the son of Laius and Jocasta. Thus, Oedipus finally realizes in great agony that so many years ago, at the place where three roads meet, he had killed his own father, King Laius, and as a consequence, married his mother, Jocasta. Oedipus goes in search of Jocasta and finds she has killed herself. Using the pin from a brooch he takes off Jocasta's gown, Oedipus gouges his eyes out. Oedipus asks Creon to look after his daughters, for his sons are old and mature enough to look after themselves, and to be allowed to touch them one last time before he is exiled. His daughter Antigone acts as his guide as he wanders blindly through the country, ultimately dying at Colonus after being placed under the protection of Athens by King Theseus. His two sons, Eteocles and Polynices, arrange to share the kingdom, each taking an alternating one-year reign. However, Eteocles refuses to cede his throne after his year as king. Polynices brings in an army to oust Eteocles from his position, and a battle ensues. At the end of the battle, the brothers kill each other. Laius' brother, Creon, takes the throne. He decides that Polynices was a "traitor," and should not be given burial rites. Defying this edict, Antigone attempts to bury her brother and, for this trespass, Creon has her buried in a rock cavern where she hangs herself. There are many different endings to the legend of Oedipus due to its oral tradition. Significant variations on the legend of Oedipus are mentioned in fragments by several ancient Greek poets including Homer, Hesiod and Pindar. Most of what is known of Oedipus comes from the set of Theban plays by Sophocles: Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone.

Quote: Medea (Greek: Μήδεια / Mēdeia) is an ancient Greek tragedy written by Euripides, based upon the myth of Jason and Medea and first produced in 431 BC. The plot centers on the barbarian protagonist as she finds her position in the Greek world threatened, and the revenge she takes against her husband Jason who has betrayed her for another woman. Euripides produced the Medea along with the lost plays Philoctetes, Dictys and the satyr play Thersitai, winning the third prize (out of three) at the City Dionysia festival for that year.[1] Contents [hide] 1 Plot 2 Themes 3 Euripidean innovation and reaction 4 Modern productions and adaptations 4.1 Theatre 4.2 Television 5 Translations 6 References 7 Sources 8 External links [edit] Plot The play tells the story of the revenge of a woman betrayed by her husband. All of the action of the play is at Corinth, where Jason has brought Medea after the adventures of the Golden Fleece. He has now left her in order to marry Glauce, the daughter of King Creon (Not to be confused with King Creon of Thebes) (Glauce is also known in Latin works as Creusa - see Seneca the Younger's Medea and Propertius 2.16.30). The play opens with Medea grieving over her loss and with her elderly nurse fearing what she might do to herself or her children. Creon, also fearing what Medea might do, arrives determined to send Medea into exile. Medea pleads for one day's delay. In the next scene Jason arrives to confront her and explain himself. He believes he could not pass up the opportunity to marry a royal princess, as Medea is only a barbarian woman, but hopes to someday join the two families and keep Medea as his mistress. Medea, and the chorus of Corinthian women, do not believe him. She reminds him that she left her own people for him ("I am the mother of your children. Whither can I fly, since all Greece hates the barbarian?"), and that she saved him and slew the dragon. Jason promises to support her after his new marriage, but Medea spurns him: "Marry the maid if thou wilt; perchance full soon thou mayst rue thy nuptials." Next Medea is visited by Aegeus, King of Athens; he is aggrieved by his lack of children, and does not understand the oracle that was supposed to give him guidance. Medea begs him to protect her, in return for her helping his wife conceive a child. Aegeus does not know what Medea is going to do in Corinth, but promises to give her refuge in any case, provided she can escape to Athens. Medea then returns to her plotting how she may kill Creon and Glauce. She decides to poison some golden robes (a family heirloom and gift from the sun god), in hopes that the bride will not be able to resist wearing them, and consequently be poisoned. Medea resolves to kill her own children as well, not because the children have done anything wrong, but because she feels it is the best way to hurt Jason. She calls for Jason once more, falsely apologizes to him, and sends the poisoned robes with her children as the gift-bearers. "Forgive what I said in anger! I will yield to the decree, and only beg one favor, that my children may stay. They shall take to the princess a costly robe and a golden crown, and pray for her protection." The request is granted and the gifts are accepted. Offstage, while Medea ponders her actions, Glauce is killed by the poisoned dress, and Creon is also killed by the poison while attempting to save her. These events are related by a messenger. Medea kills her son, Campanian red-figure amphora, ca. 330 BC, Louvre (K 300)."Alas! The bride had died in horrible agony; for no sooner had she put on Medea's gifts than a devouring poison consumed her limbs as with fire, and in his endeavor to save his daughter the old father died too." Medea is pleased with her revenge thus far, but resolves to carry it further: to utterly destroy Jason's plans for a new family, she will kill her own sons. She rushes offstage with a knife to kill her children. As the chorus laments her decision, the children are heard screaming. Jason rushes to the scene to punish her for the murder of Glauce and learns that his children too have been killed. Medea then appears above the stage in the chariot of the sun god Helios; this was probably accomplished using the mechane device usually reserved for the appearance of a god or goddess. She confronts Jason, reveling in his pain at being unable to ever hold his children again: "I do not leave my children's bodies with thee; I take them with me that I may bury them in Hera's precinct. And for thee, who didst me all that evil, I prophesy an evil doom." She escapes to Athens with the bodies. The chorus is left contemplating the will of Zeus in Medea's actions: Manifold are thy shapings, Providence! Many a hopeless matter gods arrange. What we expected never came to pass, What we did not expect the gods brought to bear; So have things gone, this whole experience through!" [edit] Themes Euripides' characterization of Medea exhibits the inner emotions of passion, love, and vengeance. Medea is widely read as a proto-feminist text to the extent that it sympathetically explores the disadvantages of being a woman in a patriarchal society,[2] although it has also been read as an expression of misogynist attitudes[3]. In conflict with this sympathetic undertone (or reinforcing a more negative reading) is Medea's barbarian identity, which would antagonize a fifth-century Greek audience.[4] [edit] Euripidean innovation and reaction Although the play is considered one of the great plays of the Western canon, the Athenian audience did not react so favorably, and awarded it only the third place prize at the Dionysia festival in 431 BC. A possible explanation might be found in a scholium to line 264 of the play, which asserts that traditionally Medea's children were killed by the Corinthians after her escape;[5] Euripides' apparent invention of Medea's filicide might have offended its audience just as his first treatment of the Hippolytus myth did.[6] In the 4th century BC, South-Italian vase painting offers a number of Medea-representations that are connected to Euripides' play — the most famous is a krater in Munich. However, these representations always differ considerably from the plots of the play or too general ones to support any direct link to the play of Euripides - this might reflect the judgement on the play. However, the violent and powerful character of princess Medea, and her double — loving and destructive -became a standard for the later periods of antiquity and seems to have inspired numerous adaptations thus became standard for the literal classes. With the rediscovery of the text in first-century Rome (the play was adapted by the tragedians Ennius, Lucius Accius, Ovid, Seneca the Younger and Hosidius Geta, among others), again in 16th-century Europe, and in the light of 20th century modern literary criticism, Medea has provoked differing reactions from differing critics and writers who have sought to interpret the reactions of their societies in the light of past generic assumptions; bringing a fresh interpretation to its universal themes of revenge and justice in an unjust society. [edit] Modern productions and adaptations [edit] Theatre Front cover of the programme of the 1993 production starring Diana Rigg at the Wyndham's Theatre. Katerina Paliou of "Theatre Arcadia" in the role of Euripides' "Medea", translated by G. Theodoridis and staged at the Great Hall of Bibliotheca Alexandria, Egypt.Jean Anouilh adapted the Medea story in his French drama, Medee, in 1946. Robinson Jeffers adapted Medea into a hit Broadway play in 1947, in a famous production starring Judith Anderson. Ben Bagley's Shoestring Revue performed a musical parody off-broadway in the 1950s which was later issued on an LP and a CD, and was revived in 1995. The same plot points take place, but "Medea in Disneyland" is a parody, in that it takes place in a Walt Disney animated cartoon. The 1990 play Pecong, by Steve Carter, is a retelling of Medea set on a fictional Caribbean island around the turn of the 20th century. The play was staged at the Wyndham's Theatre in London's West End, in a translation by Alistair Elliot.[7] The production was directed by Jonathan Kent and starred Diana Rigg.[7] The Evening Standard described Rigg's performance as "the performance she was born to give" while the Mail on Sunday described it as "unquestionably the performance of her life."[7] Peter J. Davison provided the scenic design and Jonathan Dove the music.[7] The production opened on 19 October 1993.[7] A 1993 dance-theatre retelling of the Medea myth was produced by "Edafos Dance Theatre", directed by avant-garde stage director and choreographer Dimitris Papaioannou. John Fisher wrote a camp musical version of Medea entitled Medea the Musical that re-interpreted the play in light of gay culture. The production was first staged in 1994 in Berkeley, California.[8] Neil Labute wrote "Medea Redux", a modern retelling, first performed in 1999 starring Calista Flockhart as part of his one act trilogy entitled Bash: Latter-Day Plays. In this version, the main character is seduced by her middle school teacher. He abandons her, and she kills their child out of revenge. Michael John LaChuisa created a musical adaptation work for Audra McDonald entitled Marie Christine in 1999 . McDonald portrayed the title role, and the show was set in New Orleans and Chicago respectively in 1999. Tom Lanoye (2001) used the story of Medea to bring up modern problems (such as migration and man vs. woman), resulting in a modernized version of Medea. His version also aims to analyze ideas such as the love that develops from the initial passion, problems in the marriage, and the "final hour" of the love between Jason and Medea. Kristina Leach adapted the story for her play The Medea Project, which had its world premiere at the Hunger Artists Theatre Company in 2004 and placed the story in a modern day setting.[9] Peter Stein directed Medea in Epidaurus 2005. Irish Playwright Marina Carr's By the Bog of Cats is a modern re-telling of Euripides' Medea In November 2008, "Theatre Arcadia," under the direction of Katerina Paliou, staged Medea at the Bibliotheca Alexandrina (University of Alexandria, Egypt). The production was noted (by Nehad Selaiha of the weekly "Al-Ahram") not only for its unexpected change of plot at the very end but also for its chorus of one hundred who alternated their speech between Arabic and English. The translation used was that of George Theodoridis. US Latina playwright Caridad Svich's 2009 play Wreckage, which premiered at Crowded Fire Theatre in San Francisco, tells the story of Medea from the sons' point of view, in the afterlife. paperStrangers Performance Group toured a critically-acclaimed production of Medea directed by Michael Burke to U.S. Fringe Festivals in 2009 and 2010. [edit] Television Lars Von Trier made a version for television in 1988. Theo van Gogh directed a miniseries version in 2005.[1] OedipusEnders, a documentary broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 13th April 2010, discussed similarities between soap opera and Greek theatre. One interviewee revealed that the writers for the ITV police drama series The Bill had consciously and directly drawn on Medea in writing an episode for the series.[10]

Quote: Socialization is a term used by sociologists, social psychologists, anthropologists, politicians and educationalists to refer to the process of inheriting norms, customs and ideologies. It may provide the individual with the skills and habits necessary for participating within their own society; a society itself is formed through a plurality of shared norms, customs, values, traditions, social roles, symbols and languages. Socialization is thus ‘the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained’.[1] Socialization, however, is not a normative term: it describes a process which may or may not affect the reflexive agent, and which may or may not lead to desirable, or 'moral', outcomes. Individual views on certain issues, such as race or economics, may be socialized (and to that extent normalized) within a society. Many socio-political theories postulate that socialization provides only a partial explanation for human beliefs and behaviours; that agents are not 'blank slates' predetermined by their environment.[2] Scientific research provides strong evidence that people are shaped by both social influences and their hard-wired biological makeup.[3][4][5][6][7] Genetic studies have shown that a person's environment interacts with their genotype to influence behavioural outcomes,[8] whilst the linguistic theory of generative grammar demonstrates how something such as the capacity for learning changes throughout one's lifetime. (See also: Nature vs. Nurture; Structure vs. Agency) Socialization is the primary means by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to perform as a functioning member of their society, and is the most influential learning processes one can experience[citation needed]. Although cultural variability is manifest in the actions, customs, and behaviors of whole social groups (societies), the most fundamental expression of culture is found at the individual level. This can expression can only occur after an individual has been socialized by its parents, family, extended family and extended social networks. This reflexive process of both learning and teaching is the how cultural and social characteristics attain continuity. To "socialise" may also mean simply to associate or mingle with people socially. In American English, "socialized" has mistakenly come to refer, usually in a pejorative sense, to the ownership structure of socialism or to the expansion of the welfare state.[9] Traditionally, socialists and Marxists both used the term "socialization of industry" to refer to the reorganization of institutions so that the workers are all owners (cooperatives) and to refer to the implementation of workplace democracy.[10]

Quote: Counterculture (also written counter-culture) is a sociological term used to describe the values and norms of behavior of a cultural group, or subculture, that run counter to those of the social mainstream of the day,[1] the cultural #####alent of political opposition. It is a neologism attributed to Theodore Roszak.[2][3][4] Although distinct countercultural undercurrents have existed in many societies, here the term refers to a more significant, visible phenomenon that reaches critical mass, flowers, and persists for a period of time. A countercultural movement expresses the ethos, aspirations, and dreams of a specific population during an era—a social manifestation of zeitgeist. It is important to distinguish between "counterculture," "subculture," and "fringe culture". Countercultural milieux in 19th-century Europe included Romanticism, Bohemianism, and the Dandy. Another movement existed in a more fragmentary form in the 1950s, both in Europe and the United States, in the form of the Beat generation,[2] followed in the 1960s by the hippies and anti-Vietnam War protesters. The term came to prominence in the news media, as it was used to refer to the social revolution that swept North America, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand during the 1960s and early 1970s.[1][2][4]

Quote: جفري شوسر (Geoffrey Chaucer؛ 1343 - 1400) شاعر إنجليزي عاش في القرن 14 في العصور الوسطى. يعرف لعمله المشهور "حكايات كانتربري" (بالإنجليزية: The Canterbury Tales). ومن بين أعماله الأخرى المعروفة: "كتاب الدوقة" (عام 1369)، و "ترويلس وكريسيد" (عام 1385). لقب بأب الشعر الإنجليزي، ويعد من أقدم الشعراء الإنجليز المعروفين. ولد جيفري تشوسر في مدينة لندن عام 1343 لعائلة من الطبقة الوسطى. عمل كمراقب للجمارك بين عامي 1374 إلى 1386. ثم عمل ككاتب لأشغال الملك من 1389 إلى 1391. عين قاضياً في عام 1385، ثم عضواً في البرلمان في عام 1386. كان ينظر إلى أسلوب الحب الأرستقراطي الذي يعرف بـ "حب القصور"، وكان في شعره ينتقد أسلوب المثل الرفيعة. انتقد الكنيسة في عمله المعروف باسم "حكايات كانتربري" وذلك بتصويره للراهب والناسك والداعي للمثول أمام الكنيسة. في مهام دبلوماسية غادر إلى الفلاندرز وإيطاليا وإسبانيا. وتأثر بكتابهم خاصة دانتي وبترارك. كان ملماً بالكلاسيكية اللاتينية واللاهوت. مؤلفاته النثرية تتضمن "سلوى الفلسفة" ومقالات حول الفلك. كان أول شاعر إنجليزي يقوم باستعمال الوزن الملحمي في شعره، فاستخدم بيتين موزونين مؤلفين من نظم خماسي التفعيل. أما عمله الآخر المشهور فهو "كتاب الدوقة" (بالإنجليزية: The Book of the Duchess) فيه قصيدة تأملية في وفاة زوجة جون جوانت.

Quote: حكايات كانتربري مجموعة من القصص ألفها الشاعر الإنجليزي جفري تشوسر. ويرى الباحثون في اللغة أن هذا القصص هو أشهر ما كُتب في اللغة الإنجليزية الوسيطة. وهي نوع من اللغة الإنجليزية كان شائع الاستعمال من نحو عام 1100 إلى عام 1485م. ظل تشوسر يؤلف حكايات كانتربري من نحو عام 1386م حتى وفاته عام 1400م. ولم يكمل العمل تمامًا، ولكن خطة الحكايات مسجلة في مقدمة الكتاب. وكان تشوسر قد جمع 29 زائرًا في حانة تابارد في ساوثوارك، وعبر معهم نهر التايمز في لندن للذهاب إلى كانتربري. وقد وافق كل زائر على أن يحكي حكايتين في رحلة الذهاب وحكايتين في رحلة العودة. لم يكتب تشوسر إلا 24 حكاية، منها أربع لم تكتمل. وتقول الرواية إن الزوَّار بلغوا مشارف كانتربري في اليوم الرابع. ولم يذكر أي شيء عن رحلة العودة. ويرى الكثير من النقاد أن هذه الرحلة ذات الاتجاه الواحد تمثل خطة تشوسر الحقيقية، وهي الرحلة التي يقوم بها الإنسان وترمز إلى الرحلة من الحياة الدنيا إلى الآخرة. قدم تشوسر الزوار للقارئ في مقدمة الكتاب، فالفارس، والكاهن، والحارث، وهم صور متتالية للطبقات الثلاث في القرون الوسطى: الأرستقراطية، والكهنوت (رجال الدين النصراني) والعمال. أما بقية الزوار فقد اختارهم الشاعر من الطبقة الوسطى في المجتمع الإنجليزي أوائل القرن الرابع عشر الميلادي، وقد وصف تشوسر مظهر الزوار وحياتهم الخاصة وصفًا دقيقًا. وتبرز أساليب الزوار القصصية والموضوعات المختلفة من خلال قصصهم. ومعظم القصص ما هي إلا مرآة لشخصيات الزوار أنفسهم. فمثلاً نرى الراهبة تحكي قصة عن أحد القديسين، وقد وضع الشاعر بعض القصص في مجموعات توضح وجهات نظر مختلفة عن موضوع معين. وتدور معظم القصص حول الحب والزواج والوفاق الأسري.

Quote: تْشوسَر (جِفْري ـ) (1340 ـ 1400؟) جفري تشوسر Geoffrey Chaucer شاعر انكليزي من أشهر أدباء العصور الوسطى في إنكلترة قبل شكسبير[ر]. اشتهر بقصائده «حكايات كانتربري» Canterbury Tales، وعرف بغزارة إنتاجه وتنوعه قياساً بالفترة التاريخية التي عاش فيها والتي ندر فيها الإنتاج الأدبي، لذا يعد من مؤسسي الأدب الإنكليزي واللغة الإنكليزية في فترة انتقال إنكلترة من العصور الوسطى إلى العصر الحديث الذي بدأ في عصر النهضة. عمل في البلاط الملكي منذ يفاعته، إذ كان والده تاجراً من الطبقة المتوسطة وكانت له علاقات جيدة في البلاط، وقد سعى لإدخال ابنه إليه ليضمن له تعليماً جيداً، وبقي هذا يعمل في البلاط خلال عهد ثلاثة من ملوك إنكلترة هم إدوارد الثالث وهنري الرابع وريتشارد الثاني، إذ كان موضع ثقة كل منهم، فلم يخسر عمله بتولي أحدهم العرش بعد الآخر بل حصل على ترقيات عدة، وتلقى منحة مدى الحياة. التحق بالجيش الإنكليزي في فرنسة مع الملك إدوارد الثالث، وعيِّن عضواً في البرلمان عن كِنْت Kent، ونصِّب مديراً للجمارك في ميناء لندن، ثم غدا المسؤول الأول عن أعمال التشييد والمصارف والموانئ في البلاط. تزوج فيليبا بان دي رويت Philipa Pan de Roet، ابنة السير بايون رويت Paon Roet، وكانت تعمل لدى الكونتيسة أَلستر Countess Ulster. وعندما توفيت، بقي تشوسر تحت رعاية جون غونت زوج شقيقتها، وعاش في كنت معظم أيام حياته. ورغم ندرة المعلومات عن ثقافة تشوسر، عُرف عنه معرفته بالفلسفة والفلك، والقانون المدني، وكان يتقن اللغات الفرنسية والإيطالية واللاتينية. لم يكن الشعر شاغله الوحيد، إنما قام بأعمال متنوعة، وذهب في بعثات دبلوماسية إلى إيطالية وإسبانية، ويقال إنه التقى الأديبين بوكاتشو[ر]، وبتراركا[ر]. يقسم إنتاج تشوسر الأدبي إلى ثلاث مراحل أساسية، هي مرحلة التأثر باللغة الفرنسية وآدابها التي يقدّر أنها استمرت حتى 1372، ومرحلة التأثر باللغة الإيطالية وآدابها (1373-1385)، ثم المرحلة الثالثة التي ساد فيها تأثير اللغة الإنكليزية على كتاباته (1386-1400) وأرسى بها قواعد اللغة الإنكليزية الحديثة. ويعد النقاد هذا التقسيم ضرورياً لفهم تطور أدب تشوسر من حيث تأثره باللغة والموضوعات والأجناس الأدبية الفرنسية والإيطالية، حتى توجهه بعدها للتركيز على اللغة الإنكليزية وعلى موضوعات تخص مجتمعه، ليضع بهذا أنماطاً جديدة شكلت أسس الأدب الإنكليزي. وتتداخل هذه المراحل فيما بينها خاصة في المرحلة الثالثة، فعلى سبيل المثال تُظهِر «حكايات كانتربري»، على انتمائها إلى المرحلة الإنكليزية، تأثراً واضحاً بالنماذج الشعرية الفرنسية والإيطالية التي تميز فيها الهجاء والحكايات والقصائد العاطفية، وكان معجباً بشعراء فرنسيين من أمثال ديشان Deschamps، وماشو Machaut، وترجم قصيدة «الرواية الوردية» Roman de la Rose، التي كانت نمطاً شعرياً في الغزل سائداً في فرنسة آنذاك. كتب تشوسر في هذه المرحلة أول قصيدة طويلة بعنوان «كتاب الدوقة» (1369) The Book of the Duchess، وهي عبارة عن رثاء لزوجة جون غونت بلانش Blanche، من خلال رؤيا أو حلم حاكى فيه أسلوب الشعراء الفرنسيين، إلى جانب تأثره بأوفيد[ر]، لكنه ابتكر أسلوبه المتميز باستخدامه للمكان والمشهد اللذين يضفيان طابع الحلم على القصيدة، وبإبداعه شخصيات واقعية ذات بعد نفسي عميق، ما في شخصية الفارس الذي فقد زوجته، بالإضافة إلى مزج الرثاء بالرؤيا، واتباع إيقاع الحديث العفوي مع قيود اللغة الإنكليزية الوسيطة Middle English. تأثر تشوسر بالأدب الإيطالي عندما اطلع على شعر دانتي[ر] وبوكاتشو وبتراركا في إيطالية خلال وجوده في بعثة دبلوماسية هناك. وكان قد مضى حينئذ خمسون عاماً على وفاة دانتي الذي صار من التراث الأدبي في إيطالية، وكان بوكاتشو وبتراركا في أواخر أيامهما وحياتهما الأدبية. تعلم تشوسر من الأدباء الإيطاليين التقنية والبنية السردية في الشعر، وأهمية إعطاء الشخصيات تفرداً وعمقاً درامياً، وتعرف جمالية القوافي وتنوع النغمات فيها، والتعبيرات القريبة من الكلام الشعبي. وتجلى كل هذا في تطور أسلوبه وقوافيه في هذه المرحلة التي كتب فيها قصائد تأخذ أيضاً صورة الحلم أو الرؤيا الرمزية مثل «موطن الشهرة» (1364-1380) The Hous of Fame، و«مجلس الطيور» (1377-1386) The Parlement of Foules، و«أسطورة النساء الصالحات» (1380-1386) The Legend of Good Women. ولم تخل هذه القصائد من بقايا تأثره بالأنماط الفرنسية التقليدية، ولكنه أظهر في الوقت ذاته تحولاً كبيراً عنها في استخدامه أفكاراً وموضوعات جديدة، وفي مهارته في رسم الشخوص وموضوعيته حيالها، وفي روح الفكاهة والبساطة في الأسلوب. ففي «موطن الشهرة» التي تتألف من ألفي بيت، وتتنوع موضوعاتها على حساب وحدة النص، يحلق الشاعر على ظهر نسر ليسمع ويشاهد أخباراً عن الحب بكل أشكاله وألوانه. وتكمن أهمية القصيدة في شخصية النسر الطريفة والمتحذلقة والحيوية. وتعالج القصيدة موضوع الشهرة وسرعة زوالها. ويحكي تشوسر في قصيدته «مجلس الطيور» كيف تجتمع الطيور في يوم القديس فالانتين Valentine لتختار أزواجها، ويُظهر من خلال شخصية بعض الطيور وجدالها بعضها مع بعض هجاءً طريفاً ومتميزاً يسلط الضوء على أنواع الحب، وكيف تستخدم للمصلحة الشخصية. أما «أسطورة النساء الصالحات» فهي فريدة بموضوعها، إذ يقدم فيها تشوسر مجموعة من النساء اللواتي، رغم عيوبهن، أخلصن في الحب حتى الموت، مثل الملكة كليوباترا[ر]. ولكن سرعان ما سئم تشوسر من كتابتها فلم يتمها، ربما لشعوره بأن وحدة موضوعها المأساوي جعلته عن غير قصد يكرر التعبيرات والمفردات. وتعد قصيدته الغزلية الطويلة «ترويلوس وكريسيده» Troilus and Criseyde أهم قصائده في هذه المرحلة، قدم فيها موضوعاً جديداً مع استخدامه نفس أسلوب بوكاتشو السردي في قصيدته «فيلوستراتو (المقهور حباً)» Filostrato ولتقنيات باتت مستهلكة عن الحب العذري courtly love. وكان تشوسر قد ترجم كتاب «سلوان الفلاسفة» De consolatione philosophiae للفيلسوف الروماني بويطيوس Boeithiusالذي كان مرجعاً مهماً في العصور الوسطى. وتأثر تشوسر بهذا الفيلسوف، وظهر ذلك جلياً في تحليل شخصية المرأة بتناقضاتها متمثلة في كريسيده، ودور القدر في تسيير الإنسان وتحديد العلاقات بين البشر. وقد استعان شكسبير فيما بعد بهذه القصيدة في كتابة مسرحية «ترويلوس وكريسيدا» Troilus and Criseyda. كتب تشوسر أهم قصائده في المرحلة الثالثة من إنتاجه الأدبي حين بدأ يعالج موضوعات تخص التراث والمجتمع في إنكلترة، وحين بدأ يطوّر إنكليزية عصره إلى حد كبير باتجاه الإنكليزية الحديثة Modern English، حتى إنّ عباراته وجمله بدأت تستخدم في حديث الناس اليومي. وقد تمخضت هذه المرحلة عن أشهر قصائده «حكايات كانتربري» التي يلمس القارئ فيها تغيراً ملحوظاً عما سبقها من كتاباته، لا فيما يخص اللغة والأسلوب الأدبي فقط، وإنما بتوسع الموضوعات وحماس الشاعر لأرضه وثقافته وتقاليد مجتمعه وضرورة معالجة قضاياه، خاصة في ظل الوعي الوطني الجمعي الذي ساد بعد حرب المئة عام بين إنكلترة وفرنسة، وتحوّل المجتمع الإنكليزي من النظام الإقطاعي إلى البرجوازي وهجرة الفلاحين إلى المدن. وعلى وجود ملامح من تأثره باللغات اللاتينية والفرنسية حتى في هذه المرحلة، طور تشوسر لغة خاصة به وابتعد عن أسلوب الحلم وعالمه، وعن مشهدية الأماكن التاريخية القديمة، وبدأ يتحدث في أشعاره عن أماكن واقعية في إنكلترة مثل الطريق بين لندن وكانتربري. وتتحدث «حكايات كانتربري» عن فريق من الحجاج الذين يجتمعون في لندن وينطلقون معاً في سفر طويل إلى مزار القديس توماس.أ.بيكيت Thomas a Becket في كانتربري، ويتفقون على أن يروي كل منهم قصة في طريقي الذهاب والعودة إلى لندن، ومع عدم توافق عدد القصص مع عدد الحجاج ومع أن تشوسر لم يكتب عن طريق العودة، أظهر من خلال القصص المروية حقائق كثيرة عن المجتمع الإنكليزي. وقد استطاع في هذه القصيدة الطويلة أن يدلي بدلوه الزاخر من معرفته الواسعة بالمجتمع الإنكليزي بسلبياته وإيجابياته وتناقضاته، ومن اطلاعه وخبرته العميقة بالنفس البشرية وتعقيداتها. ويصوّر تشوسر هذه الملامح بكثير من روح السخرية الطريفة التي جعلت من «حكايات كانتربري» مرجعاً شعبياً محبباً توازي في أهميتها «ألف ليلة وليلة» في الأدب العربي. وقد نجح تشوسر في اختياره للحجاج شخوصاً، إذ أتاح له هذا تنوعاً في الشخصيات حتى في القصص المروية، التي شملت طيفاً واسعاًمن الأنماط الأدبية تتنوع بين قصائد الحب العذري إلى الحكايات الرمزية وحكايات الحيوانات الرامزة [ر]، والموعظة الدينية، والأساطير[ر]، وقد زاد هذا في أهمية القصيدة. كان تشوسر مبدعاً على اقتباسه من غيره. وتكمن أهميته في كونه مؤسساً للغة الإنكليزية الحديثة، وبأنه عرّف الناس في إنكلترة الأدب الإيطالي، وكان أول من استخدم القوافي والمقاطع الشعرية التي صارت أساس الشعر الإنكليزي. يعد تشوسر شاعر الحب الدنيوي والسماوي، فقد تناول في شعره الحب والخيانة بكل أنواعهما، وتناول حب الله والتوحد معه. وكان أول شاعر إنكليزي عالج بتوسع واقع الحال في مجتمعه من خلال رسمه لشخصيات متنوعة ذات فردية وعمق نفسي. وقد قَدّر تشوسر جميع من جاء بعده من الأدباء والقراء على حد سواء، كل حسب ذوقه وتوجهاته، إذ إنه قدّم أنماطاً وأجناساً وموضوعات شتى من الرثاء إلى الهجاء، ومن الأساطير والخرافات إلى الموضوعات الإنسانية الواقعية. كان تشوسر أول من دفن في زاوية الشعراء في مقبرة العظماء في دير ويستمينستر في لندن. ريما الحكيم

Quote: كانْتَربرِي مدينة تضمُّ مركزًا للحكومة المحلية في شرقي مقاطعة كنت في إنجلترا. عدد السكان 127,100 نسمة وتوجد المدينة على جانبي طريق واتلينج، وهو الطريق الروماني الذي يربط مدينة دوفر بلندن وتقع المدينة أيضًا على نهر أستور. وبالمدينة كاتدرائية كانتربري، وهي المعلم الرئيسي في المدينة، وتوجد جامعة كَنت في كانتربري. التجارة والمواصلات. تجذب مدينة كانتربري سيلا متصلاً من الزائرين لمكانتها التاريخية والدينية. وفي المدينة سوق تزخر بالنشاط والحركة، كما أن هنالك سوقًا أسبوعيًا للأبقار والسلع الأخرى. وهي المركز التجاري لمنطقة متخصصة في زراعة الفواكه ونبات الجنجل (حشيشة الدينار)، ونباتات البساتين والحدائق، كما توجد بالمدينة أيضًا مجموعة من الشركات العاملة في مجال الهندسة الخفيفة وتربط القطارات الكهربائية مدينة كانتربري بلندن وبقية الساحل الجنوبي. نبذة تاريخية. استمد اسم المدينة كانتربري من كلمة سكسونية قديمة تعني مدينة كينتشمان. كما سَمّاها الرومان ديورفيرْنَم وقام الرومان بتحصينها في أوائل القرن الثالث الميلادي. في عام 597م، سافر سانت أوغسطين من روما إلى كانتربري وأدخل الملك إيثلبيرت في النصرانية. وقام الملك بتشجيع أوغسطين ومساعدته في تنفيذ خططه لبناء كاتدرائية ودير في كانتربري. وأصبح أوغسطين أول رئيس أساقفة لكانتربري، وفي عام 1170م، قام أربعة من فرسان الملك هنري الثاني، بقتل القديس توماس بيكيت داخل الكاتدرائية. وأقام حواريو بيكيت ضريحًا تخليدًا لذكراه في الكنيسة، حيث يزوره الحجاج النصارى باستمرار. ويقال إن الشاعر الإنجليزي جفري تشوسر استقى قصصه المسماة حكايات كانتربري من هؤلاء الحجاج. وقد أدى نزوح البروتستانت الفرنسيين في أوائل القرن السابع عشر الميلادي لكانتربري، إلى ازدهار المدينة وإنعاشها بما أحضروه معهم من أقمشة صنعوها على مغازلهم. وعندما اضمحلت صناعة النسيح، وجدت المدينة في زراعة الجُنْحُل ودخل السكك الحديدية تعويضًا عما فقدته ، وانتعشت تجارتها.

Quote: السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته تشوسرجفري (1340؟ -1400م). أشهر شاعر إنجليزي في العصور الوسطى. كتب حكايات كانتربري وهي مجموعة من القصص تُعد من روائع الأدب الغربي. حياته. ولد تشُوسَر في لندن في وقت ما بين عامي 1340و 1343م وقضى معـظم حياته هناك. وهو ينتمي لعائلة موسرة من الطبقة الوسطى، وتعلم ليصبح موظفًا حكوميًا في الخدمة المدنية أو دبلوماسيًّا. عمل تشُوسَر مراقبًا للجمارك من عام 1374م إلى عام 1386م، وكاتبًا لأشغال الملك من عام 1389م إلى عام 1391م. وفي مركزه الأخير، كان يدير الممتلكات الملكية. وعُين تشوسر قاضي صلح في 1385م، وعُين عضوًا في البرلمان في 1386م. وساعدت خبراته المتنوعة في كل هذه الوظائف على تطور إعجابه واهتمامه بالناس، كل الناس، ونمت معلوماته الواسعة بالحياة الإنجليزية وبلمسة البر الساخرة في أعماله. خصص تشوسر كتاباته لشريحة من الناس تدور في فلك أروقة بلاط الملك إدوارد الثالث، والملك ريتشارد الثاني. وبالرغم من أن تشُوسَر كان من مؤيِّدي الملك ريتشارد الثاني، إلا أنه ارتبط كذلك بمنافس ريتشارد، ألا وهو النبيل القوي جون أوف جوانت. وكان تشوسر ينظر إلى أسلوب الحب الأرستقراطي المعروف باسم حب القصور بشيء من الشك المهذَّب والمبهور. وفي شعره، كان دائمًا ينتقد أسلوب المثل الرفيعة والسلوك المنمق والأسلوب الأدبي، إلا أنه لم يكن بالدرجة نفسها من التسامح بالنسبة لما رآه من فساد في الكنيسة في العصور الوسطى. وفي حكايات كانتربري، انتقد مساوئ الكنيسة في تصويره لشخصيات الراهب والناسك وبائع صكوك الغفران، والداعي للمثول أمام الكنيسة. كان تشُوسَر واحدًا من أكثر الناس علمًا في عصره. وسافر إلى الفلاندرز وإيطاليا وأسبانيا في مهام دبلوماسية. وتأثر أولا بالكتاب الفرنسيين، ثم بالكتاب الإيطاليين، وبخاصة بوكاتشيو، ودانتي وبترارك. وربما يكون تشُوسَر قد درس القانون. وكان على دراية بالأعمال الكلاسيكية اللاتينية، وعلوم القرون الوسطى واللاهوت. وتتضمن كتاباته النثرية ترجمة سلوى الفلسفة لمؤلفه بيوثياث ومقالة عن آلة الأسطرلاب وهي آلة فلكية قديمة لقياس ارتفاع الشمس أو النجوم، وكانت سابقة لآلة السدس (السدسية). شعــره. كتب تشُوسَر أشعاره باللغة الإنجليزية التي كانت سائدة في العصور الوسطى من عام 1100م إلى نحو عام 1485م. وكان أول شاعر انجليزي يستخدم الوزن الملحمي في الشعر. وهو يتكون عادة من بيتين من الشعر موزونين من النظم الخماسي التفاعيل (مقطع قصير يتبعه مقطع طويل أو مقطع غير مشدد النطق يتبعه مقطع مشدد النطق). يُعد كتاب الدوقة (1368م) من أول أعمال تشُوسَر، وفيه مرثية رشيقة لوفاة زوجة جون جوانت الأولى. وقد كتبه تشُوسَر على منوال صيغة رؤيا الحلم في الشعر الفرنسي. ولكنه استطاع أن يطوِّر أسلوبه الشخصي تدريجيًا، كما ظهر في: بيت الشهرة (1379م)، وبرلمان الطيور (1380م)، وأسطورة النساء الفاضلات (1387 ؟ ـ 1394 ؟م)، وأشعار غنائية أخرى صغيرة. وباستثناء حكايات كانتربري فإن أشهر قصيدة كتبها تشوسر هي ترويلاس وكريسيدا (1386م). وهذه القصيدة مقتبسة من قصة حب كتبها الإيطالي بوكاتشيو. والقصيدة قصة طويلة من العصور الوسطى وتراجيديا (مأساة) فلسفية. ومكان القصة هو طروادة القديمة قبل سقوطها بقليل. وهي تحكي حب الأمير ترويلاس وكريسيدا. وفي هذه القصيدة يرتاد تشُوسَر جمال الحب والتداخلات المبهمة للحظ والقِصَر المؤلم لفترة الحب الدنيوي. أما حكايات كانتربري (1386-1400م ) فهي مجموعة من القصص يقصها عددٌ من الزوار النصارى في رحلة إلى ضريح القديس توماس بيكيت في مدينة كانتربري. ويمثل أحد الزوار تشُوسَر نفسه. وصوَّر تشُوسَر هذا الزائر شخصًا بسيطًا يأخذ كل شيء على محمله. وقد أتاح هذا الأسلوب لتشُوسَر أن يصف الزوار الآخرين بطريقة موضوعية، تسمح للقارئ أن يتعرف على الأوضاع الحقيقية للزوار

Quote: The Somonyng of Everyman (The Summoning of Everyman), usually referred to simply as Everyman, is a late 15th-century English morality play. Like John Bunyan's novel Pilgrim's Progress, Everyman examines the question of Christian salvation by use of allegorical characters, and what Man must do to attain it. The premise is that the good and evil deeds of one's life will be tallied by God after death, as in a ledger book. The play is the allegorical accounting of the life of Everyman, who represents all mankind. In the course of the action, Everyman tries to convince other characters to accompany him in the hope of improving his account. All the characters are also allegorical, each personifying an abstract idea such as Fellowship, (material) Goods, and Knowledge. The conflict between good and evil is dramatized by the interactions between characters.

Quote: Sources Nothing is known of the author, and although the play was apparently produced with some frequency in the seventy-five years following its composition, no production records survive.[1] There is a similar Dutch (Flemish) morality play of the same period called Elckerlijc. Scholars have yet to reach an agreement on whether Everyman is a translation of this play, or derived independently from a Latin work named Homulus. [edit] Setting Like the characters, the setting is allegorical: God speaks from heaven, then sends Death to earth to seek Everyman, who ascends to heaven in the final scene. Figuratively, the setting is anywhere on earth. The cultural setting is based on the Roman Catholicism of the era. Everyman attains afterlife in heaven by means of good works and the Catholic Sacraments, in particular Confession, Penance, Unction, Viaticum and receiving the Holy Eucharist. [edit] Synopsis The oldest surviving example of the script begins with this paragraph on the first page (reproduced below): "Here begynneth a treatyse how þe hye Fader of Heven sendeth Dethe to somon every creature to come and gyve acounte of theyr lyves in this worlde, and is in maner of a morall playe." [Here beginneth a treatise how the high Father of Heaven sendeth Death to summon every creature to come and give account of their lives in this world, and is in manner of a moral play.] The play opens with a prologue, which takes the form of a messenger telling the audience to attend to the action to come and to heed its lesson. Then God speaks, lamenting that humans have become too absorbed in material wealth and riches to follow Him. He feels taken for granted, because He receives no appreciation from mankind for all that He has given them. "Of ghostly sight the people be so blind, Drowned in sin, they know me not for their God; In worldly riches is all their mind, They fear not my rightwiseness, the sharp rod..." So God commands Death, His messenger, to go to Everyman and summon him to heaven to make his reckoning. Death arrives at Everyman's side and informs him it is time for him to die and face judgment. "On thee thou must take a long journey: Therefore thy book of count with thee thou bring; For turn again thou can not by no way, And look thou be sure of thy reckoning..." Upon hearing this, Everyman is distressed as he does not have a proper account of his life prepared. So Everyman tries to bribe Death, and begs for more time. Death denies Everyman's requests, but will allow him to find a companion for his journey, someone to speak for his good virtues. "Yea, if any be so hardy That would go with thee and bear thee company. Hie thee that you were gone to God’s magnificence, Thy reckoning to give before his presence." Fellowship, representing Everyman's friends, enters and promises to go anywhere with him. However, when Fellowship hears of the true nature of Everyman's journey, he refuses to go, saying that he would stay with Everyman to enjoy life but will not accompany him on a journey to death. "If Death were the messenger, For no man that is living to-day I will not go that loath journey... yet if thou wilt eat, and drink, and make good cheer, Or haunt to women, the lusty companion, I would not forsake you, while the day is clear... Everyman then calls on Kindred and Cousin, who represent family, and asks them to go with him. Kindred refuses outright: "Ah, sir; what, ye be a merry man! Take good heart to you, and make no moan. But as one thing I warn you, by Saint Anne, As for me, ye shall go alone." Cousin also refuses but makes excuses: "No by our Lady; I have the cramp in my toe. Trust not to me, for, so God me speed, I will deceive you in your most need. But Cousin also explains a fundamental reason why no people will accompany Everyman: they have their own accounts to write as well. "For verily I will not go with you; Also of mine an unready reckoning I have to account; therefore I make tarrying. Now, God keep thee, for now I go." Everyman realizes that he has put much love in material Goods, so Goods will surely come with him on his journey with Death. But Goods will not come, saying that since Everyman was so devoted to gathering Goods during his life, but never shared them with the less fortunate, Goods' presence would only make God's judgment of Everyman more severe. "Nay, Everyman, I sing another song, I follow no man in such voyages; For and I went with thee Thou shouldst fare much the worse for me..." Everyman then turns to Good Deeds. Good Deeds says she would go with him, but she is too weak as Everyman has not loved her in his life. "If ye had perfectly cheered me, Your book of account now full ready had be. Look, the books of your works and deeds eke; Oh, see how they lie under the feet, To your soul’s heaviness." Good Deeds summons her sister Knowledge to accompany them, and together they go to see Confession. "Now we go together lovingly, To Confession, that cleansing river." Confession offers Everyman a "jewel" called Penance if he repents his sins to God and suffers pain to make amends: "I will you comfort as well as I can, And a precious jewel I will give thee, Called penance, wise voider of adversity; Therewith shall your body chastised be..." In the presence of Confession, Everyman begs God for forgiveness and repents his sins, punishing himself with a scourge: "My body sore punished shall be: Take this body for the sin of the flesh; Also though delightest to go gay and fresh; And in the way of damnation thou did me brine; Therefore suffer now strokes and punishing!" After his scourging, Confession declares that Everyman is absolved of his sins, and as a result, Good Deeds becomes strong enough to accompany Everyman on his journey with Death. "Everyman, pilgrim, my special friend, Blessed by thou without end; For thee is prepared the eternal glory, Ye gave me made whole and sound, Therefore I will bid by thee in every stound." Knowledge gifts Everyman with "a garment of sorrow" made from his own tears, then Good Deeds summons Beauty, Strength, Discretion and Five Wits (i.e. the five senses) to join them. They all agree to accompany Everyman as he goes to a priest to take sacrament. "Everyman, hearken what I say; Go to priesthood, I you advise, And receive of him in any wise The holy sacrament and ointment together..." But after taking the sacrament, Everyman tells them where his journey ends, and again they all abandon him – except for Good Deeds. "O all thing faileth, save God alone; Beauty, Strength, and Discretion; For when Death bloweth his blast, They all run from me full fast." Beauty, Strength, Discretion, and the Five Wits are all qualities that fade as a person gets older. Knowledge cannot accompany him after he leaves his physical body, but will stay with him until the end. "Nay, yet I will not depart from hence depart, Till I see where ye shall be come." Content at last, Everyman climbs into his grave with Good Deeds at his side and dies, after which they ascend together into heaven, where they are welcomed by an Angel. "Now the soul is taken the body fro; Thy reckoning is crystal-clear. Now shalt thou into the heavenly sphere, Unto the which all ye shall come That liveth well before the day of doom." The play closes as the Doctor, representing a scholar, enters and provides an epilogue, explaining to the audience the moral of the story: that in the end, a man will only have his Good Deeds to accompany him beyond the grave. "And he that hath his account whole and sound, High in heaven he shall be crowned; Unto which place God bring us all thither That we may live body and soul together. Thereto help the Trinity, Amen, say ye, for saint Charity." [edit] Adaptations Another well-known version of the play is Jedermann by the Austrian playwright Hugo von Hofmannsthal, which has been performed annually at the Salzburg Festival since 1920.[2] Frederick Franck published a modernized version[3] of the tale entitled "Everyone", drawing on Buddhist influence. A direct-to-video movie version of Everyman was made in 2002, directed by John Farrell, which updated the setting to the early 21st century, including Death as a businessman in dark glasses with a briefcase, and Goods being played by a talking personal computer.[4] The play has been translated into the Filipino language by Ronan Capinding and the translation has had numerous stagings in the Philippines. [edit] In popular culture The word "everyman" has come to be a common noun, defined by the American Heritage Dictionary as, "n. An ordinary person, representative of the human race." It is not known if the definition preceded the play in usage, or the common definition was coined by the play.