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 Re: مهارات أكاديمية / كتابة بحوث - قراءة - تقديم عروض - إلخ (Re: طارق عمر مكاوي)
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Research projects and report writing
At some point in your degree, you may be asked to produce a report. A report is the
result of an investigation, experiment, or research that presents the findings in one
document. You may be asked to write a short report of 1000 words, or you might
undertake a research project of 20,000 words (or more). The basic format will be similar
for both since a dissertation is actually just a long report.
How is a report different from an essay?
A report will be visually quite different from an essay. It will have the following:
• Headings and distinct sections
• Graphs, charts, photographs, and so on if appropriate
• You might use bullet points or lists in places
Depending on its length and purpose, a report may include any or all of the following:
• Front cover
• Headings and sub-headings
• Contents page
• Abstract or executive summary
• Literature review
• Methodology
• Results, discussion of results, and recommendations
• Conclusion
• Tables, graphs, or diagrams
• Reference list
• Appendices
By laying it out with headings and sub-headings, the reader can locate specific pieces of
information without trawling the whole document. It should be easy to navigate through.
A good report will show clear purpose and objectives and have a logical structure.
Where do I begin?
Planning is essential when writing a report. Working out a timescale and planning
strategy will help you complete the report in time for handing in and avoid rushing things
at the end. One good way of helping you plan is to use a diary.
• Divide the report into stages and allocate time for each stage.
• Plan time to collect information, carry out experiments or your own research,
read previous research, and collate your own notes.
• Set aside time to proof read and amend it before you hand it in.
• Printing and binding (if necessary) can all take time.
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• If you are working as a group, arranging agreed meeting times is essential.
You could create a hypothesis to work from in your report. A hypothesis often makes
some sort of statement regarding the subject of the report. It can state an assumption
made to aid your argument or objective. In many cases, you will be expected to build
your own “question” to answer, and this will feed your hypothesis.
What about the Purpose?
When planning your report, you need to consider what its purpose is. Think about the
following two questions:
1. The Objective. What is the purpose and objective of the report? Why is it being
written and what does it intend to do?
2. Scope/limits. What should you include/exclude?
What will I need to collect?
It can be difficult knowing what information will be useful to you in your report. By
keeping your topic and areas of research in mind, you can sift through much of what
you don’t need logically. If you set yourself questions that you need the answers to for
your report, you can then find the answers in the information to hand.
Where do I look for relevant information?
There are many places where you will find useful and relevant pieces of information for
your report. This list gives some examples but is not exhaustive.
• Existing knowledge
• Your own lecture notes and lecture handouts
• Your own survey/experiment/research carried out
• Placements
• Journals
• Books
• Newspapers
• Websites
• Blogs
• Visits to other organisations
My own survey/experiment/research sounds complicated.
Carrying out your own research can be an interesting way to include some primary
findings in your chosen subject and is often essential in a report. You could set a
questionnaire or survey or perhaps conduct interviews with relevant people. You could
also carry out an experiment or case study, depending on your topic. Note that you are
only expected to carry out your own research in this way for longer reports such as
dissertations and postgraduate study – if in doubt, check with your tutor.
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Results can be given in tables or graphs to illustrate your findings.
Different types of data can be measured in your research. These are generally either
quantitative or qualitative data. It depends on the subject of the research as to which
type you will produce.
Scientific research will usually give quantitative data. This can be measured and
counted and involves numerical results that can be put into graphs and charts. It is often
considered objective and more accurate than qualitative data. This research generally
involves experiments, closed question surveys (yes/no answers only), or structured
interviews.
Social science based research uses qualitative data. This is considered more subjective
because it is often based on open questions which ask for opinion or attitudes.
Research can include interviews, case studies, focus groups, or questionnaires with
mixed open and closed questions.
Questionnaires can be tricky things to create but will contain either open, closed, or a
mixture of both types of questions. An open question will generally ask for opinions,
ideas, and thoughts on a subject. A closed question will mostly require a yes or no
answer.
Open question:
Please state what your impression was of the lecture on poverty:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Closed question:
Did you find the lecture on poverty useful? Yes / No
You should tailor your questions in order to give you enough information to create useful
results.
You will need a blank copy of your questionnaire or survey to include in the appendices
of the report.
If you conduct interviews, always make sure that your interviewees know that their
words are being used for your project. This may involve ensuring their anonymity and
other ethical issues. Again, you could use open or closed questions for these interviews,
depending on the type of information you require.
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OK, I’m ready to begin…
Before you begin writing the report itself, run through this checklist to make sure you will
have everything you need.
• You must be clear about the report’s purpose and aims
• Have all the relevant literature you intend to include
• Have your own research ready with results
• Decide on the type of charts/graphs/diagrams you will use
• Have a reasonable conclusion in mind
How do I format my report?
A report structure is usually based on the following format, but you should always check
with your tutor in case they expect something different.
1. Title page: you can use this to make your report stand out. It should include your
name and student number (note that some Schools only ask for your student
number – check your module handbook).
2. Contents page: this should detail the different sections of the report with any
sub-sections listed also with the page numbers indicated.
The contents could be laid out like this:
1. Abstract 1
2. Introduction
2.1 Aims and objectives 2
2.2 Methodology 2
3. Main Body
3.1 Findings 4
3.2 Previous research 5
3. List of tables: this lists the charts/graphs/tables and can be included on the
contents page in a similar way to the contents.
4. Abstract/executive summary: the main points raised by your report should be
put here, including any conclusions reached. An abstract will assist the reader in
gaining a general feel for what the report is about, what was done and what was
found. The abstract should be the last piece of text you write.
5. Introduction: this sets the scene for the reader. It will lay out the aims and
objectives and scope or limitations of the report. It might contain details of the
methodology used for research, or you might have a separate methodology
section.
6. Main body: the biggest section of the report. This will be divided into headings
and sub-headings, depending on what type of report it is. You will include your
results in charts or diagrams, and also talk about any previous research you have
looked into to aid your own findings. Remember to number your charts or
diagrams for easy reference. If you find visual aids too big to include in your main
body, you can refer to them and then put them in your appendices.
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7. Conclusion: you will need to refer back to your introduction and, if you have
one, hypothesis to write your conclusion. It should be clear and to the point,
detailing the conclusion your report has come to.
8. Recommendations: not all reports will have this section. It should be short and
only include any recommendations for future research that have become
apparent in light of information presented in the report.
9. Appendices: this will include any information that you feel may distract the
reader from the main body. You may want to use larger charts or diagrams that
aid understanding of the report but that don’t fit well within your text. You will also
put a copy of your questionnaire in here. You might include completed
questionnaires or transcripts of interviews. Each one should be numbered so that
you can refer to them in the text and the reader can locate them easily.
10.Reference list: this should be a formatted list of any texts you have used in
construction of the report, as with any academic assignment. Please check with
your tutor which style you are required to use.
******* Do not forget to put page numbers on your work! *******
What about writing style?
You should be careful about the style of writing in your report.
The language you use should be clear and straightforward. It needs to be written in an
academic style without unnecessary adjectives and adverbs, and it should be
punctuated correctly. Try not to use long-winded phrases such as “at this moment in
time” or “owing to the situation that.” You should use “now” or “because” instead. These
statements are too wordy and will not help you get better marks.
Also, avoid a too “chatty” style of writing or colloquialisms. Your report needs to be
businesslike and professional.
As with all academic writing, avoid using contractions such as “don’t” and “shouldn’t.”
Similarly, as with all academic writing, you should remain objective throughout the
report unless you have been specifically told to include your own opinions and thoughts.
What do I write first?
Introduction:
It is advisable to write your introduction first. An introduction sets the whole report going
for the reader and also for you too. It allows you to get to grips with what you intend to
do in the report and can be referred back to at any point to make sure you are staying
on track. If you have created a hypothesis statement, this is where you can put it.
You will put details of methodology used in research carried out in your introduction.
You could put the methodology under a subheading. Methodology is simply an
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explanation of what you have done to acquire your results. If you conducted a
questionnaire with a cross section of students on the same course as you, then this is
what you would explain. If you conducted experiments, then explain what you did and
where and when it took place. You may have carried out a close study of a small client
group. So, you would explain how the study was carried out, where and when it was
carried out, and how you recorded the results. It is simply a factual explanation of your
own research so should not present any problems.
Main body:
The next part to write would be the main body. This is where general advice is difficult to
give since it is impossible to cover every different type of report. Your main body will
include your own research findings and any other research you have looked at or used
in the form of a literature review.
Conclusions and recommendations:
Next, you need to write your conclusion and any recommendations that have arisen as
a result of your research. Your conclusion should be clear and not too long. It should
refer back to your initial aims and objectives to see whether you have done what you set
out to do. It should not include any new information nor should it answer any questions
not raised in the main body.
Appendices and bibliography:
Assemble your appendices in number order and build your reference list.
Title page:
Your title page should show the title of the report, your name and student number, and
the date. Use colour to make it look professional and stand out. Remember that some
Schools only ask for your student number – check your module handbook.
Abstract/executive summary:
You can now write your abstract based on the completed report. It should not be too
long or detailed (it may only be a paragraph or two), but it should be a clear, concise
overview of what you have done and found in your research.
Contents page:
Now that your report is almost finished, you can create a contents page listing the page
numbers of each section.
General advice for report writing.
Proofreading is essential as with all academic work. Read over your work after every
section and reword it if necessary. You should get through two or three drafts of your
report, and each one should be proofread thoroughly.
You may find that you have drifted away from your aims and objectives. Proofreading
each draft can steer you back onto the correct path.
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While drafting, don’t worry too much about layout and presentation: you can play around
with that once finished.
Once you are happy with the wording, perform a careful read through, paying close
attention to grammar, syntax, clarity, and layout.
Here is some advice on layout and presentation:
• Use a standard font (either Times New Roman or Arial) in 12 point
• Have a one inch margin to all sides
• Use double or at least space and a half spacing
• Indent the second and subsequent paragraphs if a section goes over one
paragraph long
• Bullet points are a useful way of presenting information (you can use bullet points
in reports, but not in essays)
• Don’t forget to use colour. Graphs and tables are much improved by the use of
different colours. Stick to black for the text though
• Use bold for headings and sub-headings but be consistent with size
• Check whether your module handbook contains any specific information about
the required layout and formatting of your report
And finally…
Depending on the length of your report, you can present it in different ways. A plastic
wallet with ####l clasp for standard hole-punched paper may be enough, but you can
have a longer report spiral bound by a professional company. This is really up to you,
but that sort of thing will cost money. A booklet made up of plastic pages can look good
and also keeps the pages clean and tidy. However, your tutor may want it simply
stapled together, so make sure you are aware of any requirements regarding this
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طارق عمر مكاوي
فيس بوك
تويتر
انستقرام
يوتيوب
بنتيريست