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 Re: Confucianismالكونفوشيوسيّة (Re: سيف اليزل برعي البدوي)
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Confucianism means "The School of the Scholars"; or, less accurately, "The Religion of Confucius") is an East Asian ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the early Chinese sage Confucius. It is a complex system of moral, social, political and religious which had tremendous influence on the history of Chinese civilization down to the 20th century.
Some have considered it to have been the "state religion" of imperial China.Debated during the Warring States Period and forbidden during the short-lived Qin Dynasty, Confucianism was chosen by Han Wudi for use as a political system to govern the Chinese state. Despite its loss of influence during the Tang Dynasty, Confucianist doctrine remained a mainstream Chinese orthodoxy for two millennia until the beginning of the 20th century, when it was vigorously repressed by Chinese Communism.
However, there are recent signs of a revival of Confucianism in mainland China.The cultures most strongly influenced by Confucianism include Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese. This includes various territories, including mainland China (including Hong Kong and Macao), Taiwan, Singapore (settled predominantly by ethnic Chinese), the Korean peninsula, and Vietnam.Confucianism as passed down to the 20th and 21st century derives primarily from the school of the Neo-Confucians, led by Zhu Xi, who gave Confucianism renewed vigour in the Song and later dynasties.
Neo-Confucianism combined Taoist and Buddhist ideas with existing Confucian ideas to create a more complete ####physics than had ever existed before. Many forms of Confucianism have, however, declared their opposition to the Buddhist and Taoist belief systems, despite their importance and popularity in Chinese tradition.
Development of early Confucianism
Confucius (551- 479 BCE) was a famous sage and social philosopher of China whose teachings deeply influenced East Asia for twenty centuries. The relationship between Confucianism and Confucius himself, however, is tenuous. Confucius' ideas were not accepted during his lifetime and he frequently bemoaned the fact that he remained unemployed by any of the feudal lords.
As with many other prominent figures such as Siddhartha Gautama, Jesus, or Socrates, we do not have direct access to Confucius' ideas. Instead, we have recollections by his disciples and their students . This factor is further complicated by the "Burning of the Books and Burying of the Scholars", a massive suppression of dissenting thought during the Qin Dynasty, more than two centuries after Confucius' death. What we now know of Confucius' writings and thoughts is therefore somewhat unreliable.
However, we can sketch out Confucius' ideas from the fragments that remain. Confucius was a man of letters who worried about the troubled times he lived in. He went from place to place trying to spread his political ideas and influence to the many kings contending for supremacy in China.
The disintegration of the Zhou Dynasty in the third century BCE created a power vacuum filled by small states. Deeply persuaded of the need for his mission - "If right principles prevailed through the empire, there would be no need for me to change its state" Analects XVIII, 6 - Confucius tirelessly promoted the virtues of ancient illustrious kings such as the Duke of Zhou.
Confucius tried to amass sufficient political power to found a new dynasty, as when he planned to accept an invitation from a rebel to "make a Zhou dynasty in the East" (Analects XV, 5).
As the common saying that Confucius was a "king without a crown" indicates, however, he never gained the opportunity to apply his ideas. He was expelled from states many times and eventually returned to his homeland to spend the last part of his life teaching.
The Analects of Confucius, the closest we have to a primary source for his thoughts, relates the discussions with his disciples in short sayings. This book contains a compilation of questions and answers, excerpts from conversations, and anecdotes from Confucius' life, but there is no account of a coherent system of thought.Unlike most Western philosophers, Confucius did not rely on deductive reasoning, the law of non-contradiction, logic, or proofs to convince his listeners.
Instead, he used tools of rhetoric such as analogy, aphorism and even tautology to explain his ideas. Most of the time these techniques were highly contextualised. For these reasons, Western readers might find his philosophy muddled or unclear. However, Confucius claimed that he sought "a unity all pervading" (Analects XV, 3) and that there was "one single thread binding my way together." (op. cit. IV, 15).
The first occurrences of a real Confucian system may have been created by his disciples or by the disciples of his disciples. During the philosophically fertile period of the Hundred Schools of Thought, great early figures of Confucianism such as Mencius and Xun Zi (not to be confused with Sun Zi) developed Confucianism into an ethical and political doctrine.
Both had to fight contemporary ideas and gain the ruler's confidence through argumentation and reasoning. Mencius gave Confucianism a fuller explanation of human nature, of what is needed for good government, of what morality is, and founded his idealist doctrine on the claim that human nature is essentially good.
Xun Zi opposed many of Mencius' ideas, and built a structured system upon the idea that human beings were essentially badand had to be educated and exposed to the rites (li), before being able to express their goodness.Some of Xun Zi's disciples, such as Han Feizi, became Legalists (a kind of law-based totalitarianism, quite distant from virtue-based Confucianism) and helped Qin Shi Huang to unify China under the strong state control of every human activity.
The culmination of Confucius' dream of unification and peace in China can therefore be argued to have come from Legalism, a school of thought almost diametrically opposed to his reliance on rites and virtue.
The spread of Confucianism
Confucianism survived its suppression during the Qin Dynasty partly thanks to the discovery of a trove of Confucian classics hidden in the walls of a scholar's house. After the Qin, the new Han Dynasty approved of Confucian doctrine and sponsored Confucian scholars, eventually making Confucianism the official state philosophy (see Emperor Wu of Han). Study of the Confucian classics became the basis of the government examination system and the core of the educational curriculum. No serious attempt to replace Confucianism arose until the advent of communism in the 20th century.
After its reformulation as Neo-Confucianism by Zhu Xi and the other Neo-Confucians, Confucianism also became accepted as state philosophies in Korea and Japan.
Rites
Lead the people with administrative injunctions and put them in their place with penal law, and they will avoid punishments but will be without a sense of shame. Lead them with excellence and put them in their place through roles and ritual practices, and in addition to developing a sense of shame, they will order themselves harmoniously. (Analects II, 3)
The above explains an essential difference between legalism and ritualism and points to a key difference between Western and Eastern societies. Confucius argues that under law, external authorities administer punishments after illegal actions, so people generally behave well without understanding reasons why they should; whereas with ritual, patterns of behaviour are internalised and exert their influence before actions are taken, so people behave properly because they fear shame and want to avoid losing face.
"Rite" stands here for a complex set of ideas that is difficult to render in Western languages. The Chinese character for "rites" previously had the religious meaning of "sacrifice" (the character E is composed of the character y:, which means "altar", to the left of the character placed over aF, representing a vase full of flowers and offered as a sacrifice to the gods; cf. Wenlin).
Its Confucian meaning ranges from politeness and propriety to the understanding of everybody's correct place in society.
Externally, ritual is used to distinguish between people; their usage allows people to know at all times who is the younger and who the elder, who is the guest and who the host and so forth.
Internally, they indicate to people their duty amongst others and what to expect from them.Internalisation is the main process in ritual.
Formalized behaviour becomes progressively internalised, desires are channelled and personal cultivation becomes the mark of social correctness. Though this idea conflicts with the common saying that "the cowl does not make the monk", in Confucianism sincerity is what enables behaviour to be absorbed by individuals.
Obeying ritual with sincerity makes ritual the most powerful way to cultivate oneself. Thus "Respectfulness, without the Rites, becomes laborious bustle; carefulness, without the Rites, becomes timidity; boldness, without the Rites, becomes insubordination; straightforwardness, without the Rites, becomes rudeness" (Analects VIII, 2).
Ritual can be seen as a means to find the balance between opposing qualities that might otherwise lead to conflict. Ritual divides people into categories and builds hierarchical relationships through protocols and ceremonies, assigning everyone a place in society and a form of behavior.
Music, which seems to have played a significant role in Confucius' life, is given as an exception as it transcends such boundaries, 'unifying the hearts'.
Although the Analects promotes ritual heavily, Confucius himself often behaved otherwise; for example, when he cried at his preferred disciple's death, or when he met a fiendish princess (VI, 28).
Later more rigid ritualists who forgot that ritual is "more than presents of jade and silk" (XVII, 12) strayed from their master's position.
Another key Confucian concept is that in order to govern others one must first govern oneself. When developed sufficiently, the king's personal virtue spreads beneficent influence throughout the kingdom. This idea is developed further in the Great Learning and is tightly linked with the Taoist concept of wu wei: the less the king does, the more that is done.
By being the "calm center" around which the kingdom turns, the king allows everything to function smoothly and avoids having to tamper with the individual parts of the whole.
This idea may be traced back to early shamanistic beliefs, such as that of the king (wang, sa) being the axle between the sky, human beings and the Earth. (The character itself shows the three levels of the universe, united by a single line.) Another complementary view is that this idea may have been used by ministers and counsellors to deter aristocratic whims that would otherwise be to the detriment of the population.
Although Confucius claimed that he never invented anything but was only transmitting ancient knowledge, he did produce a number of new ideas. Many western admirers such as Voltaire and H.G. Creel point to the (then) revolutionary idea of replacing the nobility of blood with one of virtue. Juniz which had meant "noble man" before Confucius' work, slowly assumed a new connotation in the course of his writings, rather as "gentleman" did in English.
A virtuous plebeian who cultivates his qualities can be a "gentleman", while a shameless son of the king is only a "small man". That he allowed students of different classes to be his disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures in Chinese society.
Another new idea, that of meritocracy, led to the introduction of the Imperial examination system in China. This system allowed anyone who passed an examination to become a government officer, a position which would bring wealth and honour to the whole family.
Though the European enthusiasm toward China died away after 1789, China gave Europe one very important practical legacy: the modern civil service. The Chinese examination system seems to have been started in 165 BCE, when certain candidates for public office were called to the Chinese capital for examination of their moral excellence by the emperor.
Over the following centuries the system grew until finally almost anyone who wished to become an official had to prove his worth by passing written government examinations.
Confucius praised those kings who left their kingdoms to those apparently most qualified rather than to their elder sons.
His achievement was the setting up of a school that produced statemen with a strong sense of state and duty, known as Rujia, the 'School of the Literati'.
During the Warring States Period and the early Han dynasty China grew greatly and the need for a solid and centralized corporation of government officers able to read and write administrative papers arose. As a result Confucianism was promoted and the corporation of men it produced became an effective counter to the remaining landowner aristocrats otherwise threatening the unity of the state.
Since then Confucianism has been used as a kind of "state religion", with authoritarianism, legitimism, paternalism and submission to authority used as political tools to rule China.
In fact most emperors used a mix of legalism and Confucianism as their ruling doctrine, often with the latter embellishing the former. They also often used different varieties of Taoism or Buddhism as their personal philosophy or religion.
As with many revered men, Confucius himself would probably have disapproved of much that has been done in his name: the use of ritual is only part of his teachings.
Concepts in Confucian thought
Ritual originally signified "to sacrifice" in a religious ceremony. In Confucianism the term was soon extended to include secular ceremonial behaviour before being used to refer to the propriety or politeness which colours everyday life. Rituals were codified and treated as an all-embracing system of norms. Confucius himself tried to revive the etiquette of earlier dynasties, but following his death he himself became regarded as the great authority on ritual behavior.
One theme central to Confucianism is that of relationships, and the differing duties arising from the different status one held in relation to others. Individuals are held to simultaneous stand in different degrees of relationship with different people, namely, as a junior in relation to their parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to their children, younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe strong duties of reverence and service to their seniors, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. This theme consistently manifests itself in many aspects of East Asian culture even to this day, with extensive filial duties on the part of children toward parents and elders, and great concern of parents toward their children.
Loyal is the #####alent of filial piety on a different plane, between ruler and minister. It was particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius' students belonged, because the only way for an ambitious young scholar to make his way in the Confucian Chinese world was to enter a ruler's civil service. Like filial piety, however, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes of China. Confucius had advocated a sensitivity to the real politik of the class relations that existed in his time; he did not propose that "might makes right", but that a superior who had received the "Mandate of Heaven" (see below) should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude.In later ages, however, emphasis was placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled.
Continued Wikipedia
http://www.crystalinks.com/confucianism.html
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Re: Confucianismالكونفوشيوسيّة (Re: سيف اليزل برعي البدوي)
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الكونفوشيوسية
إعداد الندوة العالمية للشباب الإسلامي
التعريف :
الكونفوشيوسية ديانة(*) أهل الصين، وهي ترجع إلى الفيلسوف كونفوشيوس الذي ظهر في القرن السادس قبل الميلاد داعياً إلى إحياء الطقوس والعادات والتقاليد الدينية التي ورثها الصينيون عن أجدادهم مضيفاً إليها جانباً من فلسفته وآرائه في الأخلاق والمعاملات والسلوك القويم. وهي تقوم على عبادة إله(*) السماء أو الإله الأعظم، وتقديس الملائكة، وعبادة أرواح الآباء والأجداد.
التأسيس وأبرز الشخصيات:
• كونفوشيوس:
- يعتبر كونفوشيوس المؤسس الحقيقي لهذه العقيدة الصينية.
- ولد سنة 551 ق.م في مدينة تسو Tsou وهي إحدى مدن مقاطعة لو Lu.
- اسمه كونج Kung وهو اسم القبيلة التي ينتمي إليها، وفوتس Futze معناه الرئيس أو الفيلسوف، فهو بذلك رئيس كونج أو فيلسوفها.
- ينتسب إلى أسرة عريقة، فجدّه كان والياً على تلك الولاية، ووالده كان ضابطاً حربيًّا ممتازاً، وكان هو ثمرة لزواج غير شرعي، توفي والده وله من العمر ثلاث سنوات.
- عاش يتيماً، فعمل في الرعي، وتزوج في مقتبل عمره قبل العشرين، ورزق بولد وبنت، لكنه فارق زوجته بعد سنتين من الزواج لعدم استطاعتها تحمل دقته الشديدة في المأكل والملبس والمشرب.
- تلقى علومه الفلسفية على يدي أستاذه الفيلسوف لوتس Laotse صاحب النِحلة الطاوية، حيث كان يدعو إلى القناعة والتسامح المطلق، ولكن كونفوشيوس خالفه فيما بعد داعياً إلى مقابلة السيئة بمثلها وذلك إحقاقاً للعدل.
- عندما بلغ الثانية والعشرين من عمره أنشأ مدرسة لدراسة أصول الفلسفة(*)، تكاثر تلاميذه حتى بلغوا ثلاثة آلاف تلميذ، بينهم حوالي ثمانين شخصاً عليهم أمارات.
- تنقل في عدد من الوظائف فقد عمل مستشاراً للأمراء والولاة، وعيّن قاضياً وحاكماً، ووزيراً للعمل، ووزيراً للعدل ورئيساً للوزراء في سنة 496 ق.م حيث أقدم حينها على إعدام بعض الوزراء السابقين وعدداً من رجال السياسة وأصحاب الشغب حتى صارت مقاطعة لو نموذجية في تطبيق الآراء والمبادئ الفلسفية المثالية التي ينادي بها.
- رحل بعد ذلك وتنقل بين كثير من البلدان ينصح الحكام ويرشدهم ويتصل بالناس يبث بينهم تعاليمه حاثًّا لهم على الأخلاق(*) القويمة.
- أخيراً عاد إلى مقاطعة لو فتفرغ لتدريس أصدقائه ومحبيه منكبًّا على كتب الأقدمين يلخّصها، ويرتبها، ويضمنها بعض أفكاره، وحدث أن مات وحيده الذي بلغ الخمسين من عمره، وفقد كذلك تلميذه المحبّب إليه هووي فبكى عليه بكاءً مرًّا.
- مات في سنة 479 ق.م بعد أن ترك مذهباً(*) رسميًّا وشعبيًّا استمرّ حتى منتصف القرن العشرين الحالي.
• صفاته الشخصية:
- دمث، مرح، مؤدّب، يحبّ النكتة، يتأثر لبكاء الآخرين، يبدو قاسياً وغليظاً في بعض الأحيان، طويل، دقيق في المأكل والملبس والمشرب، مولع بالقراءة والبحث والتعلم والتعليم والمعرفة والآداب.
- مغرم بالبحث عن منصب سياسي بغية تطبيق مبادئه السياسية والأخلاقية لتحقيق المدينة الفاضلة التي يدعو إليها.
- خطيب بارع، ومتكلّم مفوّه، لا يميل إلى الثرثرة، وعباراته موجزة تجري مجرى الأمثال القصيرة والحكم البليغة.
- لديه شعور ديني، يحترم الآلهة التي كانت معبودة في زمانه، ويداوم على تأدية الشعائر الدينية، يتوجه في عباداته إلى الإِله (*) الأعظم أو إله السماء، يصلي صامتاً، ويكره أن يرجو الإله النعمة أو الغفران إذ إن الصلاة لديه ليست إلا وسيلة لتنظيم سلوك الأفراد، والدّين(*) – في نظره – أداة لتحقيق التآلف بين الناس.
- كان يغني، وينشد، ويعزف الموسيقى، وقد ترك كتاب الأغاني Book of Songs كما أنه كان مغرماً بالحفلات والطقوس، إلى جانب اهتمامه بالرماية وقيادة العربات والقراءة والرياضة (الحساب) ودراسة التاريخ.
• انقسمت الكونفوشيوسية إلى اتجاهين:
- مذهب(*) متشدد حرفي ويمثله منسيوس إذ يدعو إلى الاحتفاظ بحرفية آراء كونفوشيوس وتطبيقها بكل دقة، ومنسيوس هذا تلميذ روحي لكونفوشيوس إذ إنه لم يتلق علومه مباشرة عنه بل إنه أخذها عن حفيدة وهو Tsesze الذي قام بتأليف كتاب الانسجام المركزي Central Harmony.
- والمذهب التحليلي، ويمثله هزنتسي Hsuntse ويانجتسي Yangtse، إذ يقوم مذهبهما على أساس تحليل وتفسير آراء المعلم واستنباط الأفكار باستلهام روح النص الكونفوشيوسي.
• أما أبرز الشخصيات إضافة إلى ما سبق فهم:
- تسي كنج Tsekung ولد سنة 520م وأصبح من أعظم رجال السلك السياسي الصيني.
- تسي هسيا Tsehsia ولد سنة 507م وأصبح من كبار المتفقهين في الدين الكونفوشيوسي.
- تسينكتنز Tsengtse كان أستاذاً لحفيد كونفوشيوس، ويأتي ترتيبه الثاني بعد منسيوس من حيث الأهمية.
- تشي هزيوان Chi- Husan عاش في عصر أسرة هان 127 –200 ميلادية.
- تشو هزي Cho-Hsi 1130 – 1200 ميلادية قام بنشر الكتب الأربعة التي كانت تدرس في المدارس الأولية والابتدائية في الصين، ويعد الحجة الوحيدة.
- الفيلسوف موتزي Motze 470 – 381 ق.م أضاف فكرة جديدة وهي تشخيص إله (*) السماء بشخص عظيم يشبه الآدميين.
• في سنة 422م أقيم معبد لكونفوشيوس في Chufu حيث قبره.
• في سنة 505 م أقيم معبد آخر في العاصمة، وأصبحت كتبه تدرس في المدارس على أنها كتب مقدسة.
• في سنة 630م أمر أحد الأباطرة ببناء معابد مزودة بتماثيل لكونفوشيوس في جميع أنحاء الإمبراطورية، كما أمر بإنشاء كليات لتعليم آراء كونفوشيوس الذي أصبح رمزاً للوحدتين السياسية والدينية.
• في سنة 735م منح كونفوشيوس لقب ملك.
في سنة 1013م منح لقب القديس الأعظم.
في سنة 1330م منح الأفراد المنحدرون من سلالته رتبة الشرف وصاروا يعدّون من طبقة النبلاء.
في سنة 1530م بدّلت التماثيل الموجودة في المعابد بصور ولوحات حتى لا تختلط الكونفوشيوسية بالوثنية.
في سنة 1905م بدأ نجم الكونفوشيوسية بالأفول، حيث أُلغي الامتحان الديني الذي كان يعتبر ضرورياً للتعيين في الوظائف.
في سنة 1910م ظهر شهاب هالي Halley في الأجواء الصينية فاعتبر ذلك استياء من الآلهة(*) على أسرة مانتشو التي بلغ الفساد في عهدها قمته مما أدى إلى ثورة(*) شعبية انتهت بتنازل الإمبراطور عن العرش سنة 1912م وتحول الصين إلى النظام الجمهوري (*) مما أدى إلى اختفاء الكونفوشيوسية من الحياة الدينية والسياسية، لكنها بقيت ماثلة في الأخلاق(*) والتقاليد الصينية.
في سنة 1928م صدر قرار بتحريم تقديم القرابين لكونفوشيوس ومنع إقامة الطقوس الدينية له.
عندما استولى اليابانيون على منشورياً عادت الصين إلى استنهاض الهمم بالعودة إلى الكونفوشيوسية وعاد الناس في عام 1930 – 1934م إلى تقديم القرابين مرة ثانية، كما أعيد تدريس الكونفوشيوسية في كل مكان لاعتقادهم بأن نكبتهم ترجع إلى إهمالهم تعاليم المعلم الأكبر، وسادت حركة إحياء جديدة بزعامة تشانج كاي شيك، وقد استمرت هذه الحركة إلى ما بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية.
في عام 1949م سيطرت الشيوعية على الصين، ولكن شيئاً فشيئاً بدأت الخلافات بين الصين والاتحاد السوفيتي بالظهور مما أوجد تبايناً بين كل منهما، وبعد موت الزعيم الصيني الشيوعي الشهير ماو تسي تونج بدأ التراجع عن الشيوعية في الصين، وبدأت رياح الغرب تهب عليها.
يعتقد الباحثون بأن الروح الكونفوشيوسية ستعمل على تغيير معالم الشيوعية مما يجعلها أبعد ما تكون عن الشيوعية الروسية التي انهارت، لما للكونفوشيوسية من سيطرة روحية على الشعب الصيني.
• الأفكار والمعتقدات:
الكتب:
هناك مجموعتان أساسيتان تمثلان الفكر الكونفوشيوسي فضلاً عن كثير من الشروح والتعليقات والتلخيصات، المجموعة الأولى تسمى الكتب الخمسة، والثانية تسمى الكتب الأربعة.
الكتب الخمسة: وهي الكتب التي قام كونفوشيوس ذاته بنقلها عن كتب الأقدمين وهي:
1- كتاب الأغاني أو الشعر: فيه 350 أغنية إلى جانب ستة تواشيح دينية تغني بمصاحبة الموسيقى.
2- كتاب التاريخ: فيه وثائق تاريخية تعود إلى التاريخ الصيني السحيق.
3- كتاب التغييرات: فيه فلسفة تطور الحوادث الإنسانية، وقد حوّله كونفوشيوس إلى كتاب علمي لدراسة السلوك الإنساني.
4- كتاب الربيع والخريف: كتاب تاريخي يؤرخ للفترة الواقعة بين 722 – 481 ق.م.
5- كتاب الطقوس: فيه وصف للطقوس الدينية الصينية القديمة مع معالجة النظام الأساسي لأسرة تشو تلك الأسرة التي لعبت دوراً هاماً في التاريخ الصيني البعيد.
الكتب الأربعة: وهي الكتب التي ألفها كونفوشيوس وأتباعه مدوِّنين فيها أقوال أستاذهم مع التفسير تارة والتعليق أخرى، إنها تمثل فلسفة كونفوشيوس ذاته وهي:
1- كتاب الأخلاق(*) والسياسة.
2- كتاب الانسجام المركزي .Central Harmony
3- كتاب المنتجات Analects ويطلق عليه اسم إنجيل كونفوشيوس.
4- كتاب منسيوس: وهو يتألف من سبعة كتب، ومن المحتمل أن يكون مؤلفها منسيوس نفسه.
• المعتقدات الأساسية :
تتمثل المعتقدات الأساسية لديهم في الإله(*) أو إله السماء، والملائكة، وأرواح الأجداد.
1- الإله:
يعتقدون بالإله الأعظم أو إله السماء ويتوجهون إليه بالعبادة، كما أن عبادته وتقديم القرابين إليه مخصوصة بالملك، أو بأمراء المقاطعات.
للأرض إله، وهو إله الأرض، ويعبده عامة الصينيين.
الشمس والقمر، والكواكب، والسحاب، والجبال.. لكل منها إله وعبادتها وتقديم القرابين إليها مخصوصة بالأمراء.
2- الملائكة : إنهم يقدسون الملائكة ويقدمون إليها القرابين.
3- أرواح الأجداد: يقدس الصينيون أرواح أجدادهم الأقدمين، ويعتقدون ببقاء الأرواح، والقرابين عبارة عن موائد يدخلون بها السرور على تلك الأرواح بأنواع الموسيقى، ويوجد في كل بيت معبد لأرواح الأموات ولآلهة المنزل.
• معتقدات وأفكار أخرى:
لم يكن كونفوشيوس نبيًّا(*)، ولم يدّع هو ذلك، بل يعتقدون أنه من الذين وهبوا تفويض السماء لهم ليقوموا بإرشاد الناس وهدايتهم، فقد كان مداوماً على إقامة الشعائر والطقوس الدينية، وكان يعبد الإله الأعظم والآلهة الأخرى على غير معرفة بهم ودون تثبُّت من حقيقة الآراء الدينية تلك.
كان كونفوشيوس مغرماً بالسعي لتحقيق المدينة الفاضلة التي يدعو إليها وهي مدينة مثالية لكنها تختلف عن مدينة أرسطو الفاضلة، إذ إنّ مدينة كونفوشيوس مثالية في حدود واقعٍ ممكن التحقيق والتطبيق، بينما مدينة أرسطو تجنح إلى مثالية خيالية بعيدة عن مستوى التطبيق البشري القاصر. وكلا الفيلسوفين متعاصران.
الجنة والنار: لا يعتقدون بهما، ولا يعتقدون بالبعث أصلاً، إذ إنّ همَّهم منصبّ على إصلاح الحياة الدنيا، ولا يسألون عن مصير الأرواح بعد خروجها من الأجساد. وقد سأل تلميذٌ أستاذه كونفوشيوس عن الموت، فقال: "إننا لم ندرس الحياة بعد، فكيف نستطيع أن ندرس الموت".
الجزاء والثواب: إنما يكونان في الدنيا، إن خيراً فخير، وإن شرًّا فشر.
القضاء والقدر(*): يعتقدون بذلك، فإن تكاثرت الآثام والذنوب كان عقاب السماء لهم بالزلازل والبراكين.
الحاكم ابن للسماء: فإذا ما قسا وظلم وجانب العدل فإن السماء تسلّط عليه من رعيته من يخلعه ليحلّ محلّه شخص آخر عادل.
الأخلاق(*): هي الأمر الأساسي الذي تدعو إليه الكونفوشيوسية، وهي محور الفلسفة(*) وأساس الدين(*)، وهي تسعى إليه بتربية الوازع الداخلي لدى الفرد ليشعر بالانسجام الذي يسيطر على حياته النفسية مما يخضعها للقوانين الاجتماعية بشكل تلقائي.
تظهر الأخلاق في:
1- طاعة الوالد والخضوع له.
2- طاعة الأخ الأصغر لأخيه الأكبر.
3- طاعة الحاكم والانقياد إليه.
4- إخلاص الصديق لأصدقائه.
5- عدم جرح الآخرين بالكلام أثناء محادثتهم.
6- أن تكون الأقوال على قدر الأفعال، وكراهية ظهور الشخص بمظهر لا يتفق مع مركزه وحاله.
7- البعد عن المحسوبية في الوساطة أو المحاباة.
وتظهر أخلاق الحاكم في:
1- احترام الأفراد الجديرين باحترامه.
2- التودّد إلى من تربطهم به صلة قربى وقيامه بالتزاماته حيالهم.
3- معاملة وزرائه وموظفيه بالحسنى.
4- اهتمامه بالصالح العام، مع تشجيعه للفنون النافعة والنهوض بها.
5- العطف على رعايا الدول الأخرى المقيمين في دولته.
6- تحقيق الرفاهية لأمراء الإمبراطورية ولعامة أفرادها.
تحترم الكونفوشيوسية العادات والتقاليد الموروثة، فهم محافظون إلى أبعد الحدود، فيقدّسون العلم والأمانة، ويحترمون المعاملة اللينة من غير خضوع ولا استجداء لجبروت.
يقوم المجتمع الكونفوشيوسي على أساس احترام الملكية الفردية مع ضرورة رسم برنامج إصلاحي يؤدي إلى تنمية روح المحبّة بين الأغنياء والفقراء.
يعترفون بالفوارق بين الطبقات، ويظهر هذا جليًّا حين تأدية الطقوس الدينية وفي الأعياد الرسمية وعند تقديم القرابين.
النظام الطبقي لديهم نظام مفتوح، إذ بإمكان أي شخص أن ينتقل من طبقته إلى أية طبق اجتماعية أخرى إذا كانت لديه إمكاناته تؤهله لذلك.
ليس الإنسان إلا نتيجة لتزاوج القوى السماوية مع القوى الأرضية أي لتقمص الأرواح السماوية في جواهر العناصر الأرضية الخمسة. ومن هنا وجب على الإنسان أن يتمتع بكل شيء في حدود الأخلاق الإنسانية القويمة.
يبنون تفكيرهم على فكرة "العناصر الخمسة":
1- فتركيب الأشياء: معدن – خشب – ماء – نار – تراب.
2- الأضاحي والقرابين خمسة.
3- الموسيقى لها خمسة مفاتيح، والألوان الأساسية خمسة.
4- الجهات خمس : شرق وغرب وشمال وجنوب ووسط.
5- درجات القرابة خمس: أبوّة – أمومة – زوجية – بنوّة – أخوّة.
تلعب الموسيقى دوراً هاماً في حياة الناس الاجتماعية، وتسهم في تنظيم سلوك الأفراد وتعمل على تعويدهم الطاعة والنظام، وتؤدي إلى الانسجام والألفة والإيثار.
الرجل الفاضل هو الذي يقف موقفاً وسطاً بين ذاته المركزية وبين انفعالاته ليصل إلى درجة الاستقرار الكامل .
• الجذور الفكرية والعقائدية:
ترجع الكونفوشيوسية إلى معتقدات الصينيين القدماء، تلك المعتقدات التي ترجع إلى 2600 سنة قبل الميلاد. وقد قبلها كونفوشيوس أولاً، والكونفوشيوسيون ثانياً، دون مناقشة أو جدال(*) أو تمحيص.
في القرن الرابع قبل الميلاد حدثت إضافة جديدة وهي عبادة النجمة القطبية لاعتقادهم بأنها المحور الذي تدور السماء حوله، ويعتقد الباحثون بأن هذه النزعة قد وفدت إليهم من ديانة بعض سكان حوض البحر المتوسط.
تغلبت الكونفوشيوسية على النزعة الشيوعية والنزعة الاشتراكية(*) اللتان طرأتا عليها في القرنين السابقين للميلاد وانتصرت عليهما. كما أنها استطاعت أن تصهر البوذية بالقالب الكونفوشيوسي الصيني وتنتج بوذية صينية خاصة متميزة عن البوذية الهندية الأصلية.
لا تزال المعتقدات الكونفوشيوسية موجودة في عقيدة أكثر الصينيين المعاصرين على الرغم من السيطرة السياسية للشيوعيين.
الانتشار ومواقع النفوذ :
انتشرت الكونفوشيوسية في الصين.
منذ عام 1949م أبعدت الكونفوشيوسية عن المسرحين السياسي والديني لكنها ما تزال كامنة في روح الشعب الصيني الأمر الذي يؤمل أن يؤدي إلى تغيير ملامح الشيوعية الماركسية في الصين.
ما تزال الكونفوشيوسية ماثلة في النظم الاجتماعية في فرموزا أو (الصين الوطنية).
انتشرت كذلك في كوريا وفي اليابان حيث درست في الجامعات اليابانية، وهي من الأسس الرئيسية التي تشكل الأخلاق(*) في معظم دول شرق آسيا وجنوبها الشرقي في العصرين الوسيط والحديث.
حظيت الكونفوشيوسية بتقدير بعض الفلاسفة الغربيين كالفيلسوف ليبنتز (1646 – 1716م) وبيتر نويل الذي نشر كتاب كلاسيكيات كونفوشيوس سنة 1711م كما ترجمت كتب الكونفوشيوسية إلى معظم اللغات الأوروبية.
ويتضح مما سبق :
أن الكونفوشيوسية ليست ديناً(*) سماوياً معروفاً. وقد تتضمن بعض تعاليمها دعوة إلى خلق حميد أو رأي سليم أو سلوك قويم، ولكنها ليست مما يتقرب إلى الله به: {ومن يبتغ غير الإسلام ديناً فلن يقبل منه وهو في الآخرة من الخاسرين}. وهي تماثل البوذية والهندوسية وغيرها من الأديان الباطلة.
وعموماً فقد جبَّ الإسلام ما قبله من الأديان(*) {إن الدين عند الله الإسلام}. وللحق فليس هناك ما ينفي أو يثبت ابتعاث رسول معين إلى الشعوب الأخرى ودعوى ذلك لا تخلو من الحدس والتخمين والقرآن الكريم يقول: {ولقد أرسلنا رسلاً من قبلك منهم من قصصنا عليك ومنهم من لم نقصص عليك}.
وقد كان المزج المحكم بين الفلسفة الخلقية والتعاليم الدينية على أتم وضوح في الكونفوشيوسية وصاحبها كونفوشيوس الذي لم يكن رسولاً (*) مبعوثاً ولا مدعياً لرسالة.
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مراجع للتوسع :
- الحوار، كونفوشيوس فيلسوف الصين الأكبر، ترجمة محمد مكين – المطبعة السلفية – القاهرة – 1354هـ.
- كونفوشيوس: النبي الصيني، د. حسن شحاتة سعفان – مكتبة نهضة مصر.
- الملل والنحل للشهرستاني، الطبعة الثانية – دار المعرفة – بيروت. انظر الذيل الذي هو من تأليف محمد سيد كيلاني صفحة 19.
-محاضرات في مقارنات الأديان، محمد أبو زهرة مطبعة يوسف – مصر.
مراجع أجنبية :
- Lin Yutang: The Wisdom of Confucius, N.Y. 1938.
- K. Wilhelm: Kungte, Leben und Lehre, 1925.
- Kuntse und Konfuzianismus, 1930.
- H.A. Giles: Confucianism and its rivals, London 1915.
- M.G. Pouthie: Doctrine de confucius, Paris.
- P. Masson – oursel: La philosophieen Orient. 1938.
- Social Philosophers.
-Ch. Luan: la Philosophie Morale et pollitique de Mencius, 1927.
http://www.saaid.net/feraq/mthahb/83.htm
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Re: Confucianismالكونفوشيوسيّة (Re: سيف اليزل برعي البدوي)
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Daoism
Daoism (or Taoism) refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious traditions and concepts that have influenced East Asia for over two millennia and the West for over two centuries.[1] The word 道, Tao (or Dao, depending on the romanization scheme), means "path" or "way", although in Chinese folk religion and philosophy it has taken on more abstract meanings. Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility. Taoist thought generally focuses on nature, men-cosmos correspondence (天人相应), health, longevity, wu wei (action through inaction), liberty, and spontaneity.
Reverence for ancestor spirits and immortals are also common in popular Taoism. Organized Taoism distinguishes its ritual activity from that of the folk religion, which some professional Taoists (Daoshi) view as debased. Chinese alchemy (including Neidan), astrology, cuisine, several Chinese martial arts, Chinese traditional medicine, feng shui, immortality, and many styles of qigong breath training disciplines have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history.
Spelling and pronunciation
In English, the words Daoism and Taoism are the subject of an ongoing controversy over the preferred romanization. The root Chinese word 道 "way, path" is romanized tao in the older Wade–Giles system and dào in the modern Pinyin system. In linguistic terminology, English Taoism/Daoism is a calque formed from the Chinese loanword tao/dao 道 "way; route; principle" and the native suffix -ism. The sometimes heated arguments over Taoism vs. Daoism involve sinology, phonemes, loanwords, and politics – not to mention whether Taoism should be pronounced /ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/ or /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/.
Daoism is consistently pronounced /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/, but English speakers disagree whether Taoism should be pronounced /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/. In theory, both Wade-Giles tao and Pinyin dao are articulated identically, as are Taoism and Daoism. An investment book titled The Tao Jones Averages illustrates this /daʊ/ pronunciation's widespread familiarity.[2] In speech, Tao and Taoism are mistakenly pronounced /ˈtaʊ/ and ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/, reading the Chinese unaspirated lenis ("weak") /t/ as the English voiceless stop consonant /t/. Lexicography shows American and British English differences in pronouncing Taoism. A study of major English dictionaries published in Great Britain and the United States found the most common Taoism glosses were /taʊ.ɪzəm/ in British sources and /daʊ.ɪzəm, taʊ.ɪzəm/ in American ones.[3]
Categorization
There is debate over how, and whether, Taoism should be subdivided. Livia Kohn divided it into the following three categories:[4]
"Philosophical Taoism" (Daojia 道家) - A philosophical school based on the texts Dao De Jing (道德經) and Zhuangzi (莊子);
"Religious Taoism" (Daojiao 道敎) - A family of organized Chinese religious movements originating from the Celestial Masters movement during the late Han Dynasty and later including the "Orthodox" (Zhengyi 正一) and "Complete Reality" (Quanzhen 全眞) sects, which claim lineages going back to Lao Zi (老子) or Zhang Daoling in the late Han Dynasty;
"Folk Taoism" - The Chinese folk religion.
This distinction is complicated by hermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorization of Taoist schools, sects and movements.[5] Some scholars believe that there is no distinction between Daojia and Daojiao.[6] According to Kirkland, "most scholars who have seriously studied Taoism, both in Asia and the West, have finally abandoned the simplistic dichotomy of Tao-chia and Tao-chiao, "philosophical Taoism" and "religious Taoism."[7]
Hansen states that the identification of "Taoism" as such first occurred in the early Han Dynasty when dao-jia was identified as a single school.[8] The writings of Laozi and Zhuangzi were linked together under this single tradition during the Han Dynasty, but notably not before.[9] It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Daodejing.[10][11] Additionally, Graham states that Zhuangzi would not have identified himself as a Taoist, a classification that did not arise until well after his death.[11]
Taoism does not fall strictly under an umbrella or a definition of an organized religion like the Abrahamic traditions, nor can it purely be studied as the originator or a variant of Chinese folk religion, as much of the traditional religion is outside of the tenets and core teachings of Taoism.[12] Robinet asserts that Taoism is better understood as a way of life than as a religion, and that its adherents do not approach or view Taoism the way non-Taoist historians have done.[13] Henri Maspero noted that many scholarly works frame Taoism as a school of thought focused on the quest for immortality.[14]
Beliefs
A Taoist Temple in Taiwan, showing elements of the Jingxiang religious practice and sculptures of Dragon and Lion guardiansTaoism has never been a unified religion, but has rather consisted of numerous teachings based on various revelations. Therefore, different branches of Taoism often have very distinct beliefs. Nevertheless, there are certain core beliefs that nearly all the schools share.[15]
[edit] Principles
Taoist theology emphasizes various themes found in the Daodejing and Zhuangzi, such as naturalness, vitality, peace, "non-action" (wu wei), emptiness (refinement), detachment, flexibility, receptiveness, spontaneity, the relativism of human ways of life, ways of speaking and guiding behavior.
[edit] Tao
Main article: Tao
"Tao" is usually translated as road, channel, path, way, doctrine, or line.[16] Wing-tsit Chan stated that Tao meant system of morality to Confucianists, but the natural, eternal, spontaneous, indescribable way things began and pursued their course to Taoists.[17] Hansen disagrees that these were separate meanings and attributes.[18] Cane asserts Tao can be roughly stated to be the flow of the universe, or the force behind the natural order, equating it with the influence that keeps the universe balanced and ordered.[19] Martinson says that Tao is associated with nature, due to a belief that nature demonstrates the Tao.[20] The flow of qi, as the essential energy of action and existence, is often compared to the universal order of Tao. Tao is compared to what it is not, which according to Keller is similar to the negative theology of Western scholars.[21] It is often considered to be the source of both existence and non-existence. LaFargue asserts that Tao is rarely an object of worship, being treated more like the Indian concepts of atman and dharma.[22]
[edit] De (Te)
For more details on this topic, see De (Chinese).
Tao is also associated with the complex concept of De (德) "power; virtue; integrity", that is, the active expression of Tao.[23] De is the active living, or cultivation, of that "way".[24]
[edit] Wu wei
Main article: Wu wei
Wu wei (simplified Chinese: 无为; traditional Chinese: 無爲; pinyin: wúwéi) is a central concept in Taoism. The literal meaning of wu wei is "without action". It is often expressed by the paradox wei wu wei, meaning "action without action" or "effortless doing"..[25] The practice and efficacy of wu wei are fundamental in Taoist thought, most prominently emphasized in Taoism. The goal of wu wei is alignment with Tao, revealing the soft and invisible power within all things. It is believed by Taoists that masters of wu wei can observe and follow this invisible potential, the innate in-action of the Way.[26]
In ancient Taoist texts, wu wei is associated with water through its yielding nature.[27] Water is soft and weak, but it can move earth and carve stone. Taoist philosophy proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts his will against the world, he disrupts that harmony. Taoism does not identify man's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that man must place his will in harmony with the natural universe.[28]
[edit] P'u
P'u (simplified Chinese: 朴; traditional Chinese: 樸; pinyin: pǔ, pú; Wade-Giles: p'u; lit. "uncut wood") is translated "uncarved block", "unhewn log", or "simplicity". It is a ####phor for the state of wu wei (無爲) and the principle of jian (儉).[29] It represents a passive state of receptiveness. P'u is a symbol for a state of pure potential and perception without prejudice. In this state, Taoists believe everything is seen as it is, without preconceptions or illusion.[30]
P'u is usually seen as keeping oneself in the primordial state of tao.[31] It is believed to be the true nature of the mind, unburdened by knowledge or experiences.[32] In the state of p'u, there is no right or wrong, beautiful or ugly. There is only pure experience, or awareness, free from learned labels and definitions. It is this state of being that is the goal of following wu wei.
[edit] Spirituality
Taoists believe that man is a microcosm for the universe.[12] The body ties directly into the Chinese five elements. The five organs correlate with the five elements, the five directions and the seasons.[33] Akin to the Hermetic maxim of "as above, so below", Taoism posits that man may gain knowledge of the universe by understanding himself.[34]
In Taoism, even beyond Chinese folk religion, various rituals, exercises, and substances are said to positively affect one's physical and mental health. They are also intended to align oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, or enable ecstatic spiritual journeys.[35][36] These concepts seem basic to Taoism in its elite forms. Internal alchemy and various spiritual practices are used by some Taoists to improve health and extend life, theoretically even to the point of physical immortality.[12]
[edit] Pantheon
Laozi depicted as a Taoist godFurther information: Category:Chinese deities
The traditional Chinese religion is polytheistic. Its many deities are part of a heavenly hierarchy that mirrors the bureaucracy of Imperial China. According to their beliefs, Chinese deities may be promoted or demoted for their actions. Some deities are also simply exalted humans, such as Guan Yu, the god of honor and piety. The particular deities worshipped vary according to geographical regions and historical periods in China, though the general pattern of worship is more constant.[37]
There are disagreements regarding the proper composition of this pantheon.[38] Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity. Intellectual ("elite") Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, "Lord Lao") and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities.[39][40]
While a number of immortals or other mysterious figures appear in the Zhuangzi, and to a lesser extent in the Tao Te Ching, these have generally not become the objects of worship. Traditional conceptions of Tao are not to be confused with the Western concepts of theism and monotheism. Being one with the Tao does not indicate a union with an eternal spirit in the Hindu sense, but rather living in accordance with nature.[20][28]
[edit] Ethics
For more details on this topic, see Three Jewels of the Tao.
The Three Jewels, or Three Treasures, (Chinese: 三寶; pinyin: sānbǎo; Wade-Giles: san-pao) are basic virtues in Taoism. The Three Jewels are compassion, moderation and humility. They are also translated as kindness, simplicity (or the absence of excess), and modesty. Arthur Waley describes them as "[t]he three rules that formed the practical, political side of the author's teaching". He correlated the Three Treasures with "abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority".[41]
[edit] Sexuality
See also: Taoist sexual practices
Compared to a traditional Western perspective, the Taoist view of sexuality is considerably more at ease. The body is not viewed as a dangerous source of evil temptation, but rather as a positive asset. Taoism rejects Western mind-body dualism; mind and body are not set in contrast or opposition with each other. Sex is treated as a vital component to romantic love; however, Taoism emphasizes the need for self-control and moderation. Complete abstinence is frequently treated as equally dangerous as excessive sexual indulgence. The sexual vitality of men is portrayed as limited, while the sexual energy of women is viewed as boundless. Men are encouraged to control ejaculation to preserve this vital energy, but women are encouraged to reach orgasm without restriction. Taoists believe that a man may increase and nourish his own vitality by bringing a woman to orgasm, thereby "activating" her energy and attuning it with himself. This is considered to be of benefit to both partners.[42]
[edit] Natural environment
The Tao Te Jing says: 'Humanity follows the Earth, the Earth follows Heaven, Heaven follows the Tao, and the Tao follows what is natural.' Taoists therefore obey the Earth. The Earth respects Heaven, Heaven abides by the Tao, and the Tao follows the natural course of everything. Humans should help everything grow according to its own way. Therefore human beings should cultivate the way of no-action and let nature be itself.
Biodiversity: Taoism has a unique sense of value in that it judges affluence by the number of different species. If all things in the universe grow well, then a society is a community of affluence. If not, this kingdom is on the decline. This view encourages both government and people to take good care of nature.[43]
[edit] Scripture
Taoist Priest in Macau, February 2006[edit] Tao Te Ching
See also: Tao Te Ching
The Tao Te Ching, or Daodejing, is widely considered to be the most influential Taoist text.[44] It is a foundational scripture of central importance in Taoism. It has been used as a ritual text throughout the history of religious Taoism.[45] However, the precise date that it was written is the subject of debate: there are those who put it anywhere from the 6th century BC to the 3rd century BC.[46]
Taoist commentators have deeply considered the opening lines of the Tao Te Ching. They are widely discussed in both academic and mainstream literature. A common interpretation is similar to Korzybski's observation that "the map is not the territory".[47] The opening lines, with literal and common translation, are:
道可道，非常道。 (Tao (way or path) can be said, not usual way)
"The Way that can be described is not the true Way."
名可名，非常名。 (names can be named, not usual names)
"The Name that can be named is not the constant Name."
Tao literally means "path" or "way" and can figuratively mean "essential nature", "destiny", "principle", or "true path". The philosophical and religious "Tao" is infinite, without limitation. One view states that the paradoxical opening is intended to prepare the reader for teachings about the unteachable Tao.[48] Tao is believed to be transcendent, indistinct and without form. Hence, it cannot be named or categorized. Even the word "Tao" can be considered a dangerous temptation to make Tao a limiting "name".[49]
The Tao Te Ching is not thematically ordered. However, the main themes of the text are repeatedly expressed using variant formulations, often with only a slight difference.[50] The leading themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao is said to be unnameable and accomplishing great things through small means.[51] There is significant debate regarding which English translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferred, and which particular translation methodology is best. Discussions and disputes about various translations of the Tao Te Ching can become acrimonious, involving deeply entrenched views.[52]
Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right. The Heshang Gong commentary was most likely written in the second century AD, and as perhaps the oldest commentary, contains the edition of the Tao Te Ching that was transmitted to the present day.[53] Other important commentaries include the Xiang'er, one of the most important texts from the Way of the Celestial Masters, and Wang Bi's commentary.[54]
English Translations of the Tao Te Ching
[edit] Zhuangzi
The Zhuangzi (莊子) was named after its author, who also appears as a character in the book's narrative. It is more in the form of a collection of stories than the short aphorisms and maxims of the Tao Te Ching. Also among the cast of characters in the Zhuangzi's stories is Laozi of the Tao Te Ching, as well as Confucius.
[edit] Daozang
The Daozang (道藏, Treasury of Tao) is sometimes referred to as the Taoist canon. It was originally compiled during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties. The version surviving today was published during the Ming dynasty.[55][56] The Ming Daozang includes almost 1500 texts.[57] Following the example of the Buddhist Tripitaka, it is divided into three dong (洞, "caves", "grottoes"). They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest":[58][59]
The Zhen ("real" or "truth"眞) grotto. Includes the Shangqing texts.
The Xuan ("mystery"玄) grotto. Includes the Lingbao scriptures.
The Shen ("divine"神) grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan （茅山）revelations.
Daoshi generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student.[60]
The Shangqing school has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be rewarded with immortality.[61]
[edit] Other texts
While the Tao Te Ching is most famous, there are many other important texts in traditional Taoism. Taishang Ganying Pian ("Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution") discusses sin and ethics, and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries.[62] It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives. The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have shortened lives.[51] Both the Tai Ping Jing ("Scripture on Great Peace") and the Bao Pu Zi ("Book of the Master Who Keeps to Simplicity") contain early alchemical formulas that early Taoists believed could lead to immortality.[63][64]
[edit] History
Main article: History of Taoism
White Cloud Monastery, BeijingSome forms of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China that later coalesced into a Taoist tradition.[65][66] Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism and is closely associated in this context with "original", or "primordial", Taoism.[40] Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid second century AD.[67] Taoism gained official status in China during the Tang Dynasty, whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative.[68] Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang.[69] Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes.[70] The Qing Dynasty, however, much favored Confucian classics and rejected Taoist works. During the eighteenth century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist books.[71] By the beginning of the twentieth century, Taoism had fallen so much from favor, that only one complete copy of the Daozang still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing.[72] Taoism is one of five religions recognised by the PRC, and regulates its activities through a state bureaucracy (the China Taoist Association).[73]
[edit] Adherents
The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors including defining Taoism. The number of people practicing Chinese folk religion is estimated to be just under four hundred million.[74] Most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by Taoist tradition. Estimates for the number of Taoists worldwide range from twenty to over fifty million.[75][76]
Taoism as with other religions in China have been oppressed and discouraged during the Cultural Revolution, thus the number of Taoists today greatly declined from the pre-Communist China.[citation needed]
Geographically, Taoism flourishes best in regions populated by Chinese people: mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, and various Chinese diaspora communities. Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following, except in Korea (e.g. see Kouk Sun Do) and Vietnam, until modern times. In Taiwan 7.5 million people (33% of the population) identify themselves as Taoists.[77] In Singapore, 8.5% of the population identify themselves as Taoist.[78] There are also small numbers of Taoists in the Western world.
[edit] Practices
At certain dates, food may be set out as a sacrifice to the spirits of the deceased and/or the gods, such as during the Qingming Festival. This may include slaughtered animals, such as pigs and ducks, or fruit. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of Joss paper, or Hell Bank Notes, on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual item—in the spirit world, making them available for revered ancestors and departed loved ones. At other points, a vegan diet or full fast may be observed.
Also on particular holidays, street parades take place. These are lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also variously include lion dances and dragon dances; human-occupied puppets (often of the "Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"); jitong (乩童 male "Mediums") who cut their skin with knives; Bajiajiang, which are Kungfu-practicing honor guards in demonic makeup; and palanquins carrying god-images. The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question.[79]
Fortune-telling—including astrology, I Ching, and other forms of divination—has long been considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. Mediumship is also widely encountered in some sects. There is an academic and social distinction between martial forms of mediumship ( such as jitong) and the spirit-writing that is typically practiced through planchette writing.[80]
Many Taoists also participate in the study, analysis and writing of books. Taoists of this type tend to be civil servants, elderly retirees, or in modern times, university faculty. While there is considerable overlap with religious Taoism, there are often important divergences in interpretation. For example, Wang Bi, one of the most influential philosophical commentators on the Laozi (and Yijing), was a Confucian.[81]
A number of martial arts traditions, particularly T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Bagua Zhang, Wing Chun, Won Yuen Yat Hey Jueng, Bak Mei Pai, Bok Fou Pai, Yaw Gong Moon and Xing Yi Quan, embody Taoist principles to a greater or lesser extent, and some practitioners consider their art to be a means of practicing Taoism.[82]
[edit] Taoist symbols and images
Taoist charm from Tien Hau Temple in San FranciscoThe Taijitu ("yin and yang") symbol 太極圖 as well as the Bagua 八卦 ("Eight Trigrams") are associated with Taoist symbolism.[83] While almost all Taoist organizations make use of the yin and yang symbol, one could also call it Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese. The yin and yang make a backwards "S" shape, with yin (black or red) on bottom. One is likely to see this symbol as decorations on Taoist organization flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. According to Song Dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century.[84] Previously, yin and yang were symbolized by a tiger and dragon.[84]
Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, to bring good fortune, increase life span, etc.[85] Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.[86]
A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed, representing the Big Dipper (or the "Bushel", the Chinese #####alent). In the Shang dynasty the Big Dipper was considered a deity, while during the Han dynasty, it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar god, Taiyi.[87]
Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature Chinese dragons and phoenixes made from multi-colored ceramic tiles. They also stand for the harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix being yin). A related symbol is the flaming pearl which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master.[88] In general though, Chinese Taoist architecture has no universal features that distinguish it from other structures.[89]
[edit] Relations with other religions and philosophies
Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are one, a painting in the litang style portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century, Song Dynasty.See also: The Vinegar Tasters
The terms Tao and De are religious and philosophical terms shared between Taoism and Confucianism.[90] The authorship of the Tao Te Ching is assigned to Laozi, who is traditionally held to have been a teacher of Confucius.[91] However, some scholars believe the Tao Te Ching arose as a reaction to Confucianism.[92] Zhuangzi, reacting to the Confucian-Mohist ethical disputes in his "history of thought", casts Laozi as a prior step to the Mohists by name and the Confucians by implication.
Early Taoist texts reject the basic assumptions of Confucianism which relied on rituals and order, in favour of the examples of "wild" nature and individualism. Historical Taoists challenged conventional morality, while Confucians considered society debased and in need of strong ethical guidance.[93]
The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by interaction and syncretism, with Taoism in particular.[94] Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary.[95] Chan Buddhism was particularly modified by Taoism, integrating distrust of scripture, text and even language, as well as the Taoist views of embracing "this life", dedicated practice and the "every-moment".[96] Taoism incorporated Buddhist elements during the Tang period, such as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture in tripartite organisation. During the same time, Chan Buddhism grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism.[97] Christine Mollier concluded that a number of Buddhist sutras found in medieval East Asia and Central Asia adopted many materials from earlier Taoist scriptures.[98]
Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another.[99] They also share some similar values, with all three embracing a humanist philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously.[100] This became institutionalised when aspects of the three schools were synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism
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Re: Confucianismالكونفوشيوسيّة (Re: سيف اليزل برعي البدوي)
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RELIGIONS IN "CHINA"
1 - Animism, ancestors: 3,000 BC., Animism
2- Dualism, the "Yang and Yin": 2,000 BC
2,000 BC; at the time of Abraham: In Chinese dualistic philosophy, out of the chaos in the universe came Yang, it represents everything about the world that is illuminated, evident, active, aggressive, controlling, hot, hard, and masculine, Yin, the opposite, represents everything about the world that is dark, hidden, passive, receptive, yielding, cool, soft, and feminine. Counterparts and conflicting opposites, they complemented each other in the formation of a creative force whose products were heaven and earth with its fruits.
Its symbol, is a circle divided into 2 embryonic shapes, one black, and the other white... whose significance is life and the ordering of life, universal power, and the mysterious duality which lies in the soul of men, to achieve perfect harmony.
3- Taoism: 604 BC.
4- Confucianism: 551 BC.
5- Buddhism: Second Century BC.
6- Christianity: Fourth Century AC.
7- Islam: Eighth Century AC.
8- Atheist Communism: 1950 AC.
Officially, China is Atheist today, but there are only 50 million Communists. 1,950 million practice Animism, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism (6%), in syncretism, with a few million Christians and Muslims.
TAOISM:
Taoism and the Bible - Tao and Christ
Taoism is a beautiful religion, actually it is a "predecessor of Christianity", but the one most misunderstood, because for its symbol is used the dualistic anagram of the Yin and Yang, born 1,500 years before Taoism.
In 440 BC it was adopted as a state religion. At that time Lao-Tse, the founder, became popularly venerated as a deity. Taoism, along with Buddhism and Confucianism, became the three great religions of China. With the end of the Ch'ing Dynasty in 1911, state support for Taoism ended. Much of the Taoist heritage was destroyed during the next period of warlordism. After the Communist victory in 1949, religious freedom was severely restricted.
Taoism currently has about 20 million followers, and is primarily centered in Taiwan. About 30,000 Taoists live in North America; 1,720 in Canada (1991 census). Taoism has had a significant impact on North American culture in areas of "acupuncture, herbalism, holistic medicine, meditation and martial arts..."
1- The essence of Taoism and the Bible:
The essence of Taoism is "Tao", "the way", who is not the "eternal Tao", (not God the Father); he is "the way, the truth and the life" (does it sound like Christ?)... the translation of the Bible in Chinese reads, "In the beginning was the Tao, and the Tao was with God, and the Tao was God"...like John1:1... the "Tao" is "infinite profundity", "the origin of all things", "a stabilizing force, for where Tao is equilibrium"... "it existed before heaven and earth", "it is eternal", "stands alone, and never changes, pervades everywhere", "Tao is the source of all things, the treasure of good men, and the sustainer of bad men"... He is the "Word", Jesus Christ!.
However there is a great difference: "Tao" is not a person, it is a force, a principle... "Jesus" is a person, he is God, the creator of all things in heavens and earth, and he wants to live in your heart, and you in him, in his Mystical Body, in his Church... come to Jesus, just have faith in him and you will be saved... he is the real living Tao!.
"Tao" (pronounced "Dow") is basically indefinable. It has to be experienced. It "refers to a power which envelopes, surrounds and flows through all things, living and non-living. The Tao regulates natural processes and nourishes balance in the Universe. It embodies the harmony of opposites (i.e. there would be no love without hate, no light without dark, no male without female.)"
In Taoism, Tao, roughly translated as path, is a force which flows through all life and is the first cause of everything. The goal of everyone is to become one with the Tao. Tai Chi, a technique of exercise using slow deliberate movements, is used to balance the flow of energy or "chi" within the body. People should develop virtue and seek compassion, moderation and humility. One should plan any action in advance and achieve it through minimal action.
Yin (dark side) and Yang (light side) symbolize pairs of opposites which are seen through the universe, such as good and evil, light and dark, male and female. The impact of human civilization upsets the balance of Yin and Yang.
Taoists believe that people are by nature, good, and that one should be kind to others simply because such treatment will probably be reciprocated.
Taoism's focus on nature and the natural order complements the societal focus of Confucianism, and its synthesis with Buddhism is the basis of Zen.
The concept of a personified deity is foreign to Taoism, as is the concept of the creation of the universe. Thus, they do not pray as Christians do; there is no God to hear the prayers or to act upon them. They seek answers to life's problems through inner meditation and outer observation.... Each believer's goal is to become one with the Tao.
2- The "men of Tao":
"He who lives in Tao, and Tao in him, is a good men: He keeps in good terms with men, takes things easy, loves the world as he does his own person; he is simple like an infant, cautious, modest, yielding. He is humble, and thus he remains entire. He is subtle, penetrating and profound; avoids excess, extravagance, and indulgence. He makes the self of the people his self"... he acts to the good or to the bad with goodness, and to the faithful or the faithless with faith. He returns love for great hatred"...
All these quotations from the "Tao-Tee King" certainly sound like "Christ" and "Christianity!...
The Three Jewels to be sought in Taoism are compassion, moderation and humility.
What Taoism is missing is the "Tao" incarnated, and that's what Christianity got.
The essence of Christianity is not "to know" about Christ but "to be" another Christ, with Christ in the Christian and the Christian in Christ, in his Mystical Body, in his church... and Christ is God, the Absolute, the real "Tao" who became a real human person.
1- The Cross: Jesus on the Cross redeemed us, He paid for all our sins for all our bad karma, we just have to appropriate this free payment just by believing in Jesus Christ. snd doing what he orders, mainly to be baptized in his church ((Mark 16:16-18).
2- The Resurrection: But the Cross was not the end... After His Resurrection Jesus Himself wants to live in us, here, on earth. We were saved from sin to live on earth with the love and joy and peace of Jesus in us, I no longer live, but Christ lives in me (Gal.2:20). A love and joy and peace that nothing and nobody can take away (Rom.8:37-39).
Give thanks with joy to God always and in any circumstance as proclaimed in Eph.5:20 and emphasized in the Preface of every Holy Mass, Indeed it is "just" and "necessary", our "duty" and our "salvation" to give thanks to God always and in all circumstances. There are no more words in the dictionary to emphasize it!
The life of a Christian on earth is a A Wedding Feast! , as proclaimed in at least 20 quotations in the Bible. In this Wedding Feast each one of us is invited, and not just as any guest, but as the "Bride of the Lamb". This is the message of the Cana wedding feast in John 2, the first miracle of Jesus.
With problems like in Cana, but always with the joy and love and excitement of a bride in her wedding feast. In success or failure, good or bad health, always with the joy and love and peace of Jesus in me that nobody and nothing can take away.
3- The Ascension: Still more: The work of Jesus on earth did not end with the Cross nor with the Resurrection, but with His Ascension to Heaven: He wants us to go to eternal Heaven, like Him!... Christianity is the religion of joy on earth, but still more, in Heaven for one eternity, without the need for any reincarnation, because Jesus paid for absolutely all or sins, all our bad karma.
Suffering?
Yes, many problems and sufferings, but with the joy and excitement of a "mother in labor" Jesus tells us in Jn.16:21. Because Each suffering is to bring up a new life, either in us or in others:
1- In us... because each suffering is like an injection of God to purify us, as proclaimed in Hebrews 12.
2- In others... like the sufferings of redemption of Christ or Mary, of Peter or Paul... Now I rejoice in my sufferings for your sake, and in my flesh I do my share on behalf of His body, which is the church, in filling up what is lacking in Christ's afflictions. (Colos.1:24)... yes, with my cross I am a co-redeemer with Christ, it is my best evangelization, to help others to go to Heaven. An old sick woman is not a burden, but the best treasure of home.
"Suffering" is a great revolution of Jesus in the two mountains:
1- In the Mount of the Beatitudes, proclaiming the "poor happy", the "hunger happy", those who "mourn happy", the "persecuted happy"...
2- At Calvary it was not with words, but with deeds, with his flesh... the greatest success of humankind!...
IT CAN BE DONE... CHRIST AND I, ABSOLUTE MAJORITY!, I can do everything through him who gives me strength. (Phil.4:13).
3- The third part of Taoism: The Old dualism:
The "old dualism" of life stems from Tao, as the competition of complimentary opposites, "Yin and Yang"; these two competing energies are found in all things, but both must be kept in "balance". Excess of any energy is harmful. When the 2 forces are in balance within the human personality then the perfect ideal human will exist. But always Tao, the spirit, will prevail over the physical, material nature, for Tao will never die.
Tai Chi:
There is a long history involvement by Taoists in various exercise and movement techniques. Tai chi in particular works on all parts of the body. It "stimulates the central nervous system, lowers blood pressure, relieves stress and gently tones muscles without strain. It also enhances digestion, elimination of wastes and the circulation of blood. Moreover, tai chi's rhythmic movements massage the internal organs and improve their functionality." Traditional Chinese medicine teaches that illness is caused by blockages or lack of balance in the body's "chi" (intrinsic energy). Tai Chi is believed to balance this energy flow. http://www.utah.edu/stc/tai-chi/articles.html http---www.taoist.org
4- The other site of Taoism: Priests, magic, spirits, emperor
Lao-Tze left no church, no priests, no rituals and services... but today, it is lived in syncretism with the old Animism of China, and it is demeaned by polytheism, witchcraft, demonology, spiritism, spirit spells, and a degenerate papacy...
"- The "Yin" and "Yang" represented as a "dragon" and a "tiger", live in a sort of cosmic struggle of gestation and have to be controlled in life by the "priests" rituals, plus the "medium", the "shaman", and the "oracle"... and the Emperor..
The "priests" head the rituals in the temples, and an "incense burner" is essential to every magic rite and exorcism... these "temples", besides of the religious rituals, are as well a "cultural axis", providing fairs, puppet shows, story-tellers, opera... and most Chinese have they altars at home, to the ancestors, and to spell the bad spirits.
The "medium" whose body is occupied by a spirit while in trance, communicates with the ancestors, makes divination...
The "shaman" travels into the afterlife, either to heaven or hell, and makes healing rituals, alchemical formulae, medicine, herbal texts...
The "oracle" speaks in the words of a by standing spirit, and fulfills the role of a seer, healer, and keeper of justice mainly in the villages, providing more stability than the rapidly political and industrial forces of Communism.
The Emperor is the only one who can communicate with Tao, so, for centuries, became the "Emperor-god", the actual god of the people of China... and when the Emperors were dethroned by the Communists in 1950, Mao and his successors became the actual "atheist gods" of the Chinese.
After-Death:
Each Chinese, after death, wants to be an important ancestor... in their Heaven, where they can help the living... but there is Hell, like "Purgatory", with 9 stages of punishments, each one governed by a demon king; and the prayers can help them to get out of there.
HOLY SCRIPTURES:
Lao-Tze was not successful in China, so he decided to leave... and he went away, no body knows where... but before leaving, at the request of his friend Yin Hsi, he wrote the "Tao-Te King" which means "the Way to Virtue Canon", and it is the main holy scripture of Taoism, and very beautiful!. Two centuries latter "Chuang Tze" spread Taoism, and his writings are also considered holy scriptures. Tao te Ching, Chuang Tzu
FESTIVALS:
Most of them are to honor the ancestors, who can help us in this life, because thy may be in a kind of a Christian Heaven, or to pray for them, because they may be in a kind of Christian "Purgatory"
DENOMINATIONS or Traditions:
1- Orthodox: Tao masters and Black Headed Taoists. Stress the importance of rituals, cosmic renewal, and controlling spirits.
2- Spirit Claud Taoists: Masters of methods or Headed Taoists. Concentrate on meditation, not rituals.
TAOISM AND CONFUCIANISM:
Taoism, was founded in the 604 BC in China by Lao-Tze, which means "old philosopher" or "old boy", but his real name was Li-Uhr.
It is actually practiced in China by most of the 2 billion Chinese, in syncretism with Confucianism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam... and even by those who call themselves Communists...
Lao-Tze was the teacher of Confucius... and both Taoism and Confucianism complement each other: Lao-Tze is the "mystic" who spoke chiefly of the unseen and intangible; Confucius is the "great realistic" and moral philosopher who preferred not speaking of things unseen, rather he set a system of "moral axioms" rather than "religious dogmas".
"Two" different religious ways:
For Confucius "human conduct" must be righteous, and the man's relation with God and the universe would take care of itself... for Lao-Tze, man must establish himself in harmony with the universal principle, with Tao, through his own Tao, and good human conduct will follow...
- Which way will be better to become a good person?... to try to be good, or to try to unite with God?...
For Christianity the way is to live in Christ and Christ in you... because all persons are essentially "selfish", we love ourselves, which is the opposite of the real "love"; but if Jesus is in you, then you are going to feed the hungry, help the sick or the one in need... but it is "not you", it is Christ "who lives in you" (Gal.2:20)... however, when Christ is in you, you do not become a "robot", you are still the only one responsible for yours actions, and you have to strive to be pure and good, living every minute of your life with faith in Jesus, who lives in you, without fear to nobody and to nothing... the greatest sin of a Christian is to do something without faith in Christ, trusting in himself or in money or in human power instead of trusting in Jesus Christ (Rom.14:23).
1- The Creator.
2- The Helper.
3- Lao-Tze as god, after death...
http://www.religion-cults.com/Eastern/Taoism/taoism.htm
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سيف اليزل برعي البدوي
فيس بوك
تويتر
انستقرام
يوتيوب
بنتيريست