مهارات أكاديمية / كتابة بحوث - قراءة - تقديم عروض - إلخ

مهارة القراءة

Note-Taking and Reading
You will spend a lot of your study time reading about your subject and taking
notes from books, lectures, journals and other sources. This is a guide to how
to get the most from your reading and notes (note-taking and note-making).
Reading
You will do a lot of reading at university, and it is important to develop good
habits as soon as possible.
Why read?
Reading is an essential part of study. At university you are expected to pursue
independent study, and reading will form part of this in almost all subjects.
You will be given reading lists by your lecturers. These are sources which the
lecturer thinks are important to an understanding of the subject and which will
help you pass your assessments. They tend to be divided into Recommended
Reading/Texts and Further Reading/Text.
Try to read as many of the Recommended Reading/Texts as possible, and
read the Further Reading/Texts if you have spare time after reading the
Recommended Reading/Texts or if you are unable to obtain copies of all the
Recommended Reading/Texts.
You will also need to find other sources for yourself. The reading lists are
guides as to what is useful, and you will be expected to look beyond these as
you get further into your degree.
Where to read
It is best to read in places which are comfortable and free from distractions.
This will vary from person to person - you might require silence to concentrate
on your reading, or might prefer somewhere with some ambient noise, or
even music. If you are unsure try out a range of places but remember that if
you find music and noise even a little bit distracting then it is probably best to
read without them as they will affect your productivity.
Where possible read in natural light or a well lit room, so that you do not strain
your eyes.
Sit, or lie, in a comfortable position. Maintain good posture (straight back, feet
flat on floor if sitting, etc).
Find out what time of day suits you best for learning, when you feel most alert
and active. It also helps to eat well, as you will find it harder to concentrate if
you are hungry.
3
You will absorb more information if you have breaks. Try reading for 45
minutes then taking a 15 minutes break.
Stay disciplined. Set yourself targets and stick to them. You could choose to
read for a set amount of time, or have a target to read a set number of
chapters, books, articles, etc. You should also stay disciplined with regard to
your breaks, do not let them last longer than planned.
Do not get distracted. Put your mobile phone away or have it set so it will not
disturb you. If you are using a computer, log out of email, Facebook or any
other distracting website.
If you are revising with friends, do not distract each other. It is unfair to
interrupt someone else’s work and you would not like them to do the same to
you. Revising with friends can also help you stick to your targets, especially if
you all set yourselves the same target. You can also help each other by
making sure everyone takes breaks when they are needed, although if you
take breaks together there will be a temptation to extend the break because
you are enjoying being sociable – stay disciplined.
Types of reading
You are not expected to read every single word of every single source. One of
the most important skills you will learn at university is how to read in different
ways and how to decide which way to read each source.
- Glance – read the title and any blurb on the back or inner sleeve of the
book/journal to decide if the book contains relevant information.
- Scan – as above but look at contents page, index, or introduction in
order to get a slightly deeper understanding of the book or article.
- Skim – read through the main body of the text, taking in the
introductions and conclusions to chapters, or looking for keywords and
names.
- Speed – read through the main text using speed reading methods (see
below).
- Concentrated – detailed reading of the text, including footnotes and/or
references.
If you encounter a word you do not understand it is best initially to read on a
bit in order to see if the word is explained or if the context of its use makes its
meaning obvious. However it is always wise to read with a dictionary nearby
so you can check on words which you are unsure of.
If you are finding a text difficult, have a break. Sometimes you need to clear
your mind and think about something else, do something else, or even sleep
on it. This can leave you feeling #######ed and you might understand your
source.
4
Active reading
You will find that you remember more of what you have written if you are
actively engaging with your reading. The best way to do this is to take notes
as you go along.
Note-making from books
You will need: paper, a pen, a soft pencil, an eraser, books; or, a computer, a
soft pencil, an eraser, books.
Making notes whilst reading is just that – making notes. You are not being
asked to copy down everything you have read, to do so would be timeconsuming
and unnecessary.
Good note-taking technique comes with practice. Select a piece of text. This
could be as little as one page, or as much as one chapter or article. If you are
reading one of your own books, you can read the whole text and underline
anything relevant with your soft pencil (so you can rub the lines out when you
are finished). However do not do this with library books or books borrowed
from someone else, without their permission. If you want to try this technique
on a library or borrowed book, you can photocopy the pages you want to read
and write on the photocopies. Check the library’s rules on photocopying, as
you are not allowed to photocopy entire books or journals.
When you have finished reading the whole piece go back to the start and turn
the bits you have underlined into notes.
Paraphrase what you have underlined, and condense it into short notes. Do
not copy what you have underlined, but rather put it into your own words. This
will help your understanding as you will have to think about what you have
read in order to turn it into useful notes.
For example (from Ward, J. (1997). Latin America: Development and conflict
since 1945. London: Routledge. p31)
“Latin American development strategies remained too inward looking for too
long, but the policy changes correcting this introversion, begun in the
Southern Cone during the 1970s, and continued more widely after 1982, were
excessively abrupt.”
This can be condensed to:
- Development strategies too long inward looking. 1970s (Southern
Cone)/1982 (wider) changes to address this “excessively abrupt”.
This halves the size of the useful passage, making it less time-consuming to
record. The use of quotation marks around “excessively abrupt” indicates that
it is the writer’s exact words. Short direct quotations can be useful in your
notes if:
5
- The quote cannot be rewritten.
- The direct quotation is useful, for instance in this example “excessively
abrupt” could be useful as evidence of how people, specifically the
author, viewed the development strategies of Latin America.
As you do more note-making you will find that you become better at
identifying what to write down and to leave out.
Record exactly where you read everything you note down. When reading for
essays this is essential so you can correctly reference what you use.
- Keep all notes from one source together.
- Write the author’s name, title, date, publisher and location (depending
on what information is relevant for referencing the source you are
using) at the top of each page you take notes on.
- Record the page number next to each note.
You might wish to record this information even if you are not reading for an
essay as it is practice for good habits.
When you have finished reading your source you could try creating a
summary of the notes you have made, perhaps a single side of A4 paper.
This will mean you have engaged with and thought about the piece twice. This
will help you remember.
Handy note-making hints
- Use abbreviations – it will save time if you shorten words or phrases.
There are plenty of common abbreviations (abbr.), for example (e.g.)
“that is” (i.e.), “therefore” (and#8756;), “because” (and#8757;), “equals” (=), etc.
- Make up your own abbreviations. You do not have to use any particular
abbreviations, but it is important that you remember what your
abbreviations mean or you will find your notes unreadable. You could
make a glossary of abbreviations so you can cross reference any
confusing notes.
- Make a record of every source you take notes from.
- Use your own words and condense your ideas into bullet points.
- Notes do not need to be neat, if it helps then draw lines, use colours or
even draw diagrams in your notes.
Taking notes in lectures
Taking notes in lectures is another skill you will improve at as you get more
practice.
Do not try and record everything your lecturer says. You will not be able to
and it will result in you missing things throughout the lecture. Your notes
should record the essential details of the lecture but they do not need to be
exhaustive.
Some lecturers will give out handouts which record important information,
reiterate keys points, or reproduce their slideshow presentations. Lecturers
6
can also be contacted after lectures (usually by email but check this) if you
want to clarify a point or ask further questions about the lecture. Do not feel
self-conscious about doing this, it is a form of independent research and
investigation which university students are encouraged to do.
You will also find some courses have reading lists for each lecture, found in
the module handbooks, which will give further reading to help clarify anything
you heard in the lecture.
Tips for lectures
- Do not try to record every word.
- Paraphrase, use your own words to condense what is said.
- Listen – do not write anything until you feel you have understood the
information or argument. This will keep your notes useful and prevent
you taking lots of incoherent notes.
- Use abbreviations (see above).
- Do not feel pressured to take notes because the people sitting around
you are – everyone has their own note-taking strategies, only take
notes you think are relevant.
- If the lecturer gives you a handout it is sometimes a good idea to write
your notes on the handout. This will help keep your ideas together for
each lecture, although this is not suitable for all handouts so use your
discretion.
Making long lists of notes is not always the best way to note-take. For some
people the pace of lectures means they will take very few notes so they can
absorb the information more thoroughly. These can be accompanied by
noting down cues, which might not be comprehensible to the outsider, but
which make sense to the person who wrote them. These can take the form of
symbols, individual words, doodles or colours, amongst other examples.
These more abstract ways of recording lecture information should only be
used if you are confident that they will allow you to recall the information you
need. For some people a combination of traditional notes and more abstract
methods can prove useful, as you will have written words which can help with
understanding the meaning of drawings or diagrams which you have not
looked at for some time.
Some note-taking abbreviations
Some examples of note-taking abbreviations used in different subjects:
X – The Greek letter chi, traditionally used as an abbreviation for ‘Christ’ it can
be used for all related words, ‘Christmas’ becomes ‘Xmas’, ‘Christian’
becomes ‘X-ian’.
and#936; – The Greek letter psi, used to represent ‘psychology’.
and#934; – The Greek letter phi, used to represent ‘philosophy’. In its small form and#966; it
can represent the ‘golden ratio’ in mathematics and architecture and art.
7
Greek letters also represent a wide range of mathematical, science and
engineering concepts.
Logic symbols are often used in mathematics and science to represent
concepts and statements. They can also be used in note-taking:
and#8756; - ‘therefore’
and#8757; - ‘because’
= - ‘equals’
and#8800; - ‘does not equal’
¬ - the ‘logical negation’ symbol, ¬A means ‘not A’
and#8658; - the ‘implication’ symbol, Aand#8658;B means ‘if A, then B’
and#8660; - the ‘material #####alence’ symbol, Aand#8660;B means ‘A is true if B is true, A is
false if B is false’
and#8707;- means ‘there exists’
and#8704;- means ‘for all’
The gender symbols:
and#9794; - ‘male’/’man’
and#9792; - ‘female’/’woman’
There are also a wide range of words which are shortened in note-taking.
Some examples include:
adj. – ‘adjective’
adv. – ‘adverb’
c. – ‘century’ (if before a number indicating the century number, e.g.
c.14th
cf. – ‘see this for more information’ (e.g. ‘cf. previous week’s notes’)
)/’circa’ i.e. ‘approximately’ *
cts. – ‘continuous’
diff. – ‘different’/’difficult’/’differential’ *
e.g. – ‘for example’
esp. – ‘especially’
fn. – ‘function’
mkt. – ‘market’
plt. – ‘parliament’
poss. – ‘possible’
ppl. – ‘people’
prev. – ‘previous(ly)’
*These are good examples of something all note-takers should be aware of –
if you are going to use abbreviations, be consistent and use the same
abbreviation for the same words at all times. If you are using ‘diff.’ for both
‘difficult’ and ‘different’, for example, you might find yourself unable to work
out if you have taken notes about a ‘difficult crowd’ or a ‘different crowd’ when
you see ‘diff. crowd’. It is best to apply the abbreviation to word which you
encounter most frequently in your note-taking.
8
There are many more abbreviations in common use, and you are under no
obligation to use all or even any. These examples are listed in order to
demonstrate the range and diversity of abbreviations which can be used. Find
your own preferred abbreviations, it is most important that you are able to
read and understand them.

Giving a presentation
You will probably have to give at least one presentation during your time at
University. It’s also a skill you might need in your chosen career, or you could
be asked to give a presentation at a future job interview. Many people find this
a daunting prospect, but there are some things you can do to make the
experience a little less painful. This guide will run through some tips to help
you do your best in presentations.
What do you have to do?
Make sure, before you start, that you have understood what you’re being
asked to do. Think about the following:
• How long does the presentation have to be? Even a five minute
presentation can feel awfully long if you are unprepared.
• Who is the audience for this presentation? Are you presenting to a
panel? To your class? Does this affect how you feel about presenting?
• What is the presentation about? What do you need to cover? Make
sure you understand the instructions, and if you’re not sure, check with
your tutor or module handbook.
• What other instructions have you been given? Have you been
asked to use visual aids or produce handouts?
• Is it an individual or group presentation? If you are asked to present
as a group, you will need to plan your presentation together so that it
flows coherently.
Planning the presentation
A presentation might take longer than you think to prepare. A few hastily
flung-together PowerPoint slides won’t be enough. You need to plan what you
are going to say, as if you were writing an essay. Don’t forget:
• Your introduction. Just like an essay, a presentation needs an
introduction so that the audience knows what the presentation will be
about.
• Structure the content. What are you going to include? What needs to
be explained first? Think about the structure of your presentation so
that it flows coherently and in a logical order.
• Your conclusion. Make sure to sum up your points and reach some
kind of conclusion, rather than just stopping.
• Academic references. You’ll still need to refer to academic theories,
studies and arguments. Make sure it’s clear what content has come
from which source.
3
Using technology
You may have been asked to use visual aids, such as PowerPoint slides.
Visual aids are not a substitute for good presentation skills – they are not
there to do all the work for you. Rather, they should complement your
presentation without distracting from it. If you are using something like
PowerPoint, be aware of a few pointers:
• Have a title slide. This should include your name and the title of your
presentation.
• Don’t put too much information on each slide. Too much
information or text will distract the audience, and they might find it
difficult to concentrate on both the slide and your voice at the same
time. Your slides should only have the main points on them.
• Be careful of font size and colour. Make sure the text is big enough
for the audience to read, and that you haven’t used colours which clash.
• Don’t overdo the animation. Tinkling noises and words flying in from
all angles are actually quite distracting and difficult to watch. It’s fine to
use some animation or sound if it’s appropriate, but think about the
purpose of your presentation and whether this is suitable.
• Make sure images are clear. If you’re showing graphs, photos or
other images, make sure the audience can see and understand them.
• Do your slides match? Don’t use a mixture of backgrounds and styles.
If you’re presenting as a group, your slides should all have the same
general appearance so that they look like parts of the same
presentation rather than several small presentations stuck together.
• Know how to use the equipment. Practise using PowerPoint if you’re
not used to it, so that you don’t panic when trying to get your
presentation to work. It’s also a good idea to save it in more than one
place, in case of memory stick malfunction.
Handouts
You might have been told to provide handouts, but it is a good idea to provide
a handout even if you haven’t been told to do so, as it helps the panel or
examiners to remember your presentation. If you are presenting to your whole
class, you don’t need to print a handout out for everyone, but do provide one
for the tutor. There are some things to consider:
• What will you put on the handout? Will you print out your slides, or
use the handout to provide additional information (such as graphs or
your reference list)?
• When will you give the handout to the audience? Do you want them
to have it from the beginning, so that they can make notes on the
handout as they go along? Or would you prefer to provide it at the end
of the presentation, as a reminder?
• Make sure your handout is clear. Your handout needs to be useful
and suitable, so make sure it’s legible and easy to understand.
4
The presentation itself
Many people get nervous about presenting in public, particularly when they
don’t have much experience of doing so. This is only natural – most students
will have very limited experience of giving presentations, and it’s difficult
getting used to standing up in front of a panel of examiners or classmates.
Your tutors and examiners do understand this, but there are a few things you
can do which will help you to feel better about presentations.
• Most importantly, you must know your topic. You need to practise
your presentation, and be confident that you know what points you are
going to make. Can you explain briefly to someone else what you’ll be
covering in the presentation? Being familiar with the material and
ensuring you know your stuff will be time well spent.
• Practise in front of someone else. Running through the presentation
in front of a friend or family member will be really useful, as you’ll be
able to tell how well you know the topic and what you need to work on.
You might also find it useful to attend a presentation practice session
with a Study Skills Tutor in Student Life, where you can practise in front
of a small group of other students (and the tutor) and receive
constructive feedback.
Taking notes with you
You’ll probably find it best to take some kind of notes in with you, to remind
you what you were going to say. Remember, if you are using slides, they
should only contain the main points. You will expand on these points in your
presentation. Whatever you do, don’t take a full script in with you. You’ll find
yourself reading from it, and if you get lost it can take a long time to find your
place as you have to plough through pages of information. It’s advisable to
only take something containing the main points in with you, so that you can’t
rely on reading them out and have to expand on them.
Most people find one of the two following options useful.
1. Print out your slides. If using slides, it’s often good to print them out
and make brief notes alongside them, reminding you what you want to
say.
2. Postcards. Using postcards (or paper) containing just the main points
is a good technique. A list of bullet points to remind you of the main
things you want to mention will jog your memory as you go along.
Presentation tips
As well as knowing your topic, you need to think about how you are
disseminating this information to your audience. Your presentation style is
important, and you need to look confident (even if you aren’t!). Think about:
• Your body language. Try not to fidget, and make sure you are facing
the audience and not turning round to read from the screen if using a
projector and slides.
• Make eye contact… or at least look as if you are doing so. If you can’t
face looking the audience in the eye, make sure to look in their general
5
direction as much as possible. The audience want to feel that you are
engaging with them and speaking to them.
• Make sure the audience can see you. Don’t hide behind a lectern
and be careful not to stand in front of the screen if using slides.
• Don’t rush. Speak slowly. Make sure to time your presentation when
practising, to be sure it’s the right length.
• Take a deep breath and compose yourself. It’s fine to take a few
seconds to get your thoughts together, and if you do lose your way,
you can spend a moment finding your place.
• If presenting as a group, think about how you will share the workload
(what order will you present in, where will you all stand, and so on).
You need to think about these issues before the presentation, so that
you are not flustered and disorganised on the day.
Dealing with questions
There may be some time for questions after the presentation. This is just as
important as the presentation itself, and can be worth several marks. Think
about what you might be asked beforehand, so that you can have a few
planned responses ready. Questions are not there to catch you out, but rather
to give you the opportunity to expand on certain points raised in the
presentation.
If you don’t understand a question, it’s fine to ask for it to be repeated or
clarified. Similarly, you can ask for a few moments to compose your answer if
you need to. Remember, it’s best to be honest, so if you really don’t know the
answer, say so.
By following the advice given here, you should be able to prepare yourself for
your presentations and survive them unscathed.

Research projects and report writing
At some point in your degree, you may be asked to produce a report. A report is the
result of an investigation, experiment, or research that presents the findings in one
document. You may be asked to write a short report of 1000 words, or you might
undertake a research project of 20,000 words (or more). The basic format will be similar
for both since a dissertation is actually just a long report.
How is a report different from an essay?
A report will be visually quite different from an essay. It will have the following:
• Headings and distinct sections
• Graphs, charts, photographs, and so on if appropriate
• You might use bullet points or lists in places
Depending on its length and purpose, a report may include any or all of the following:
• Front cover
• Headings and sub-headings
• Contents page
• Abstract or executive summary
• Literature review
• Methodology
• Results, discussion of results, and recommendations
• Conclusion
• Tables, graphs, or diagrams
• Reference list
• Appendices
By laying it out with headings and sub-headings, the reader can locate specific pieces of
information without trawling the whole document. It should be easy to navigate through.
A good report will show clear purpose and objectives and have a logical structure.
Where do I begin?
Planning is essential when writing a report. Working out a timescale and planning
strategy will help you complete the report in time for handing in and avoid rushing things
at the end. One good way of helping you plan is to use a diary.
• Divide the report into stages and allocate time for each stage.
• Plan time to collect information, carry out experiments or your own research,
read previous research, and collate your own notes.
• Set aside time to proof read and amend it before you hand it in.
• Printing and binding (if necessary) can all take time.
3
• If you are working as a group, arranging agreed meeting times is essential.
You could create a hypothesis to work from in your report. A hypothesis often makes
some sort of statement regarding the subject of the report. It can state an assumption
made to aid your argument or objective. In many cases, you will be expected to build
your own “question” to answer, and this will feed your hypothesis.
What about the Purpose?
When planning your report, you need to consider what its purpose is. Think about the
following two questions:
1. The Objective. What is the purpose and objective of the report? Why is it being
written and what does it intend to do?
2. Scope/limits. What should you include/exclude?
What will I need to collect?
It can be difficult knowing what information will be useful to you in your report. By
keeping your topic and areas of research in mind, you can sift through much of what
you don’t need logically. If you set yourself questions that you need the answers to for
your report, you can then find the answers in the information to hand.
Where do I look for relevant information?
There are many places where you will find useful and relevant pieces of information for
your report. This list gives some examples but is not exhaustive.
• Existing knowledge
• Your own lecture notes and lecture handouts
• Your own survey/experiment/research carried out
• Placements
• Journals
• Books
• Newspapers
• Websites
• Blogs
• Visits to other organisations
My own survey/experiment/research sounds complicated.
Carrying out your own research can be an interesting way to include some primary
findings in your chosen subject and is often essential in a report. You could set a
questionnaire or survey or perhaps conduct interviews with relevant people. You could
also carry out an experiment or case study, depending on your topic. Note that you are
only expected to carry out your own research in this way for longer reports such as
dissertations and postgraduate study – if in doubt, check with your tutor.
4
Results can be given in tables or graphs to illustrate your findings.
Different types of data can be measured in your research. These are generally either
quantitative or qualitative data. It depends on the subject of the research as to which
type you will produce.
Scientific research will usually give quantitative data. This can be measured and
counted and involves numerical results that can be put into graphs and charts. It is often
considered objective and more accurate than qualitative data. This research generally
involves experiments, closed question surveys (yes/no answers only), or structured
interviews.
Social science based research uses qualitative data. This is considered more subjective
because it is often based on open questions which ask for opinion or attitudes.
Research can include interviews, case studies, focus groups, or questionnaires with
mixed open and closed questions.
Questionnaires can be tricky things to create but will contain either open, closed, or a
mixture of both types of questions. An open question will generally ask for opinions,
ideas, and thoughts on a subject. A closed question will mostly require a yes or no
answer.
Open question:
Please state what your impression was of the lecture on poverty:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Closed question:
Did you find the lecture on poverty useful? Yes / No
You should tailor your questions in order to give you enough information to create useful
results.
You will need a blank copy of your questionnaire or survey to include in the appendices
of the report.
If you conduct interviews, always make sure that your interviewees know that their
words are being used for your project. This may involve ensuring their anonymity and
other ethical issues. Again, you could use open or closed questions for these interviews,
depending on the type of information you require.
5
OK, I’m ready to begin…
Before you begin writing the report itself, run through this checklist to make sure you will
have everything you need.
• You must be clear about the report’s purpose and aims
• Have all the relevant literature you intend to include
• Have your own research ready with results
• Decide on the type of charts/graphs/diagrams you will use
• Have a reasonable conclusion in mind
How do I format my report?
A report structure is usually based on the following format, but you should always check
with your tutor in case they expect something different.
1. Title page: you can use this to make your report stand out. It should include your
name and student number (note that some Schools only ask for your student
number – check your module handbook).
2. Contents page: this should detail the different sections of the report with any
sub-sections listed also with the page numbers indicated.
The contents could be laid out like this:
1. Abstract 1
2. Introduction
2.1 Aims and objectives 2
2.2 Methodology 2
3. Main Body
3.1 Findings 4
3.2 Previous research 5
3. List of tables: this lists the charts/graphs/tables and can be included on the
contents page in a similar way to the contents.
4. Abstract/executive summary: the main points raised by your report should be
put here, including any conclusions reached. An abstract will assist the reader in
gaining a general feel for what the report is about, what was done and what was
found. The abstract should be the last piece of text you write.
5. Introduction: this sets the scene for the reader. It will lay out the aims and
objectives and scope or limitations of the report. It might contain details of the
methodology used for research, or you might have a separate methodology
section.
6. Main body: the biggest section of the report. This will be divided into headings
and sub-headings, depending on what type of report it is. You will include your
results in charts or diagrams, and also talk about any previous research you have
looked into to aid your own findings. Remember to number your charts or
diagrams for easy reference. If you find visual aids too big to include in your main
body, you can refer to them and then put them in your appendices.
6
7. Conclusion: you will need to refer back to your introduction and, if you have
one, hypothesis to write your conclusion. It should be clear and to the point,
detailing the conclusion your report has come to.
8. Recommendations: not all reports will have this section. It should be short and
only include any recommendations for future research that have become
apparent in light of information presented in the report.
9. Appendices: this will include any information that you feel may distract the
reader from the main body. You may want to use larger charts or diagrams that
aid understanding of the report but that don’t fit well within your text. You will also
put a copy of your questionnaire in here. You might include completed
questionnaires or transcripts of interviews. Each one should be numbered so that
you can refer to them in the text and the reader can locate them easily.
10.Reference list: this should be a formatted list of any texts you have used in
construction of the report, as with any academic assignment. Please check with
your tutor which style you are required to use.
******* Do not forget to put page numbers on your work! *******
What about writing style?
You should be careful about the style of writing in your report.
The language you use should be clear and straightforward. It needs to be written in an
academic style without unnecessary adjectives and adverbs, and it should be
punctuated correctly. Try not to use long-winded phrases such as “at this moment in
time” or “owing to the situation that.” You should use “now” or “because” instead. These
statements are too wordy and will not help you get better marks.
Also, avoid a too “chatty” style of writing or colloquialisms. Your report needs to be
businesslike and professional.
As with all academic writing, avoid using contractions such as “don’t” and “shouldn’t.”
Similarly, as with all academic writing, you should remain objective throughout the
report unless you have been specifically told to include your own opinions and thoughts.
What do I write first?
Introduction:
It is advisable to write your introduction first. An introduction sets the whole report going
for the reader and also for you too. It allows you to get to grips with what you intend to
do in the report and can be referred back to at any point to make sure you are staying
on track. If you have created a hypothesis statement, this is where you can put it.
You will put details of methodology used in research carried out in your introduction.
You could put the methodology under a subheading. Methodology is simply an
7
explanation of what you have done to acquire your results. If you conducted a
questionnaire with a cross section of students on the same course as you, then this is
what you would explain. If you conducted experiments, then explain what you did and
where and when it took place. You may have carried out a close study of a small client
group. So, you would explain how the study was carried out, where and when it was
carried out, and how you recorded the results. It is simply a factual explanation of your
own research so should not present any problems.
Main body:
The next part to write would be the main body. This is where general advice is difficult to
give since it is impossible to cover every different type of report. Your main body will
include your own research findings and any other research you have looked at or used
in the form of a literature review.
Conclusions and recommendations:
Next, you need to write your conclusion and any recommendations that have arisen as
a result of your research. Your conclusion should be clear and not too long. It should
refer back to your initial aims and objectives to see whether you have done what you set
out to do. It should not include any new information nor should it answer any questions
not raised in the main body.
Appendices and bibliography:
Assemble your appendices in number order and build your reference list.
Title page:
Your title page should show the title of the report, your name and student number, and
the date. Use colour to make it look professional and stand out. Remember that some
Schools only ask for your student number – check your module handbook.
Abstract/executive summary:
You can now write your abstract based on the completed report. It should not be too
long or detailed (it may only be a paragraph or two), but it should be a clear, concise
overview of what you have done and found in your research.
Contents page:
Now that your report is almost finished, you can create a contents page listing the page
numbers of each section.
General advice for report writing.
Proofreading is essential as with all academic work. Read over your work after every
section and reword it if necessary. You should get through two or three drafts of your
report, and each one should be proofread thoroughly.
You may find that you have drifted away from your aims and objectives. Proofreading
each draft can steer you back onto the correct path.
8
While drafting, don’t worry too much about layout and presentation: you can play around
with that once finished.
Once you are happy with the wording, perform a careful read through, paying close
attention to grammar, syntax, clarity, and layout.
Here is some advice on layout and presentation:
• Use a standard font (either Times New Roman or Arial) in 12 point
• Have a one inch margin to all sides
• Use double or at least space and a half spacing
• Indent the second and subsequent paragraphs if a section goes over one
paragraph long
• Bullet points are a useful way of presenting information (you can use bullet points
in reports, but not in essays)
• Don’t forget to use colour. Graphs and tables are much improved by the use of
different colours. Stick to black for the text though
• Use bold for headings and sub-headings but be consistent with size
• Check whether your module handbook contains any specific information about
the required layout and formatting of your report
And finally…
Depending on the length of your report, you can present it in different ways. A plastic
wallet with ####l clasp for standard hole-punched paper may be enough, but you can
have a longer report spiral bound by a professional company. This is really up to you,
but that sort of thing will cost money. A booklet made up of plastic pages can look good
and also keeps the pages clean and tidy. However, your tutor may want it simply
stapled together, so make sure you are aware of any requirements regarding this

Writing your assignment
An assignment is something you’ll be asked to produce as part of your
course, and is usually assessed. There are many different types of
assignment, so make sure you understand which kind you have been told
to do. This guide will give you some tips to help you get started.
1. Don’t leave it to the last minute
You don’t have to start the assignment as soon as you’re given the brief by
your tutor, but it’s useful to have a look at the instructions so that you have
an idea of what you have to do (and how long it might take you).
Remember that the library only has a certain number of copies of each
book, so don’t leave it too late to find key texts.
2. Make sure you understand the instructions
Do you have to write an essay (a continuous piece of writing) or a report
(which might have headings for each section, diagrams, graphs and so on)?
How many words does the essay / report have to be? (Check with your
tutors about rules regarding word limits.)
When do you have to hand it in?
Do you have a choice of questions to answer? If so, pick one which
interests you and about which you think you will be able to find lots of good
information.
3. What is the question actually asking for?
You have to make sure to answer the question or complete the
assignment correctly – you could write a fantastic essay, but if you haven’t
done what you were asked to do, you won’t get a good mark.
Look for clues such as the ‘process words’ or ‘action words’ – are you
being asked to compare two theories? Are you being asked to evaluate
something (in effect, this means you are looking into how good something
is)? There’s a list of common ‘process words’ at the end of this leaflet.
If the question is particularly long or complicated, it will help if you break it
into sections and look at each section individually at first.
A good way of checking whether you have completely understood the
instructions is to try explaining them out loud, either just to yourself or to
someone else – checking with others on your course can help you to be
sure that you have all interpreted the instructions in the same way.
4. Do a quick plan before you start
Think about what you already know, and what you need to find out. What
sort of things might you need to include? Do you need to look for a
3
definition of a term before you can do anything else? By doing this, you will
know what you are looking for before you start your research, and you’ll be
able to direct your reading towards relevant material.
5. Collect your information
Make sure to use a good range of sources – your tutors usually want to
see a mixture of books, journal articles, websites and other sources
relevant to the topic. There will be some useful sources on your reading
list, but you also need to find additional information elsewhere. If you’re not
sure where to start, have a look at the reference list in a good source on
the topic that you already have and see what books / articles that author
used. You might find that there’s a particular journal which keeps cropping
up in other people’s reference lists, so you could start by searching for that.
Online databases are very useful, and you might find that you can print off
many of the journal articles you need from your home computer. However,
you need to have an idea of what you are searching for before you start,
as typing in a keyword might give you thousands of results!
Every time you make notes from a source, keep the reference details with
the notes so that you know exactly where each piece of information came
from. That way, you won’t need to hunt around at the last minute, trying to
remember which book you used.
6. Write a more detailed plan
Now you’ve got lots of information, you need to work out which bits to use
in your assignment and in what order you need to mention them. A plan is
a way of organising your thoughts and information, so it doesn’t matter
what it looks like. You might write a list, draw a flow diagram or spider
diagram, or even use a notice board to arrange the information into a
suitable order. Doing this before you start writing will save you a lot of time
in the long run, and your essay will flow rather than jumping around
between different topics. One of the most common negative feedback
comments from tutors is that a student’s assignment is badly structured,
and by planning beforehand you will be structuring your assignment before
you even begin writing it. Tutors can tell very easily whether a student has
planned the structure of their work or not!
7. Getting started
If you’re finding it hard to start writing, break your tasks down into small
chunks. Look at your plan and see what you need to do – do you need a
paragraph which explains a theory, or a section which discusses a
particular author’s work? Start with something small like this, and write
something – it doesn’t need to make sense, in fact it could just be a list of
points or things you’ve found out about that author or theory. You can put
it together as a proper paragraph later. Once you start writing and have
something on the page or screen, you should find that it becomes
gradually easier to carry on.
4
8. Don’t forget your introduction
Always start your essay or report properly by including an introduction.
Your introduction lets the reader know where the assignment is heading,
so you might choose to start with something like “The purpose of this
report is to…”, or you could start by defining a key term from the title of the
assignment.
Some people find it easiest to write the introduction first, whereas others
leave it until the end. Neither approach is right or wrong, so write the
assignment in whichever order feels best for you. The introduction might
be around 10% of the word count (200 words for a 2000 word assignment).
9. Don’t forget your conclusion
At the end of the assignment, you need to summarise the key points
you’ve made. You won’t be introducing any new material here, but you
might be effectively answering the original question and stating why the
evidence has led to that answer. Your conclusion could be up to 10% of
the word count for the assignment (200 words for a 2000 word
assignment).
10.Use other authors’ work
You are rarely asked to write about your own opinions in your assignments.
The most common exception to this is in reflective writing, which is
covered in another Study Basics guide. In most cases, you are expected
to research other authors’ work and to present their arguments, studies
and theories in your essay or report. You will therefore need to look for
themes, similarities and differences – do some authors agree with each
other? Do others disagree? Why? Have two authors carried out the same
experiment but claim to have found different results?
Remember to look at your sources critically – have a look at the Study
Basics guide called “Critical analysis of a journal article”.
Don’t forget to tell the person reading your assignment where each piece
of information originally came from – see our Referencing guide and
Plagiarism pack for more details on how to do this correctly.
11.Academic writing style
There are a number of things to be aware of when writing academic
assignments. The most common issues are shown here.
• Don’t use shortened versions or contractions such as “don’t” and
“won’t” in academic writing. Always write the full version, “do not” or
“will not”.
• Don’t use slang. To get used to the kinds of language you need to
use, try reading some journal articles and looking at the way the
authors write.
5
• Don’t use “I”, “we”, “you” and so on – unless you have been
specifically told you can. (You are allowed to use these words in
reflective essays, and in some subject areas you may be told that
you can use “I” when specifically asked for your opinion, but in
almost all academic writing you will not be permitted to use the first
person.) You can still get your opinion across in your essay or
report, by discussing the strengths and weaknesses of the studies
you are discussing.
12.Edit your work
Don’t feel that once you have written a paragraph you can’t change it –
read it through and edit if you need to. You might choose to do this as you
go along, or you could leave it until later. Make sure that your points are
clear and that your sentences make sense.
13.Get your draft assignment written
Once you’ve written a draft or first version of your essay / report, it’s best
to stop working on it for a while. Hopefully you haven’t left your assignment
to the last minute and have time to ignore it overnight or even for a couple
of days. Then come back to it and read it through.
14.Proofread your draft
Some people find it easy to write their assignment directly onto the
computer, whereas others write everything out longhand and then type the
finished work up afterwards. Whichever way you work, you’ll find it easiest
to proofread your draft if you print it out or use a handwritten version. It is
very difficult for most people to proofread accurately whilst using a
computer screen.
Tips for proofreading:
• Read your assignment out loud, either to someone else or just to
yourself. Your ear will pick up on things which your eye might not
notice, so you’ll hear when sentences aren’t clear or when you
haven’t explained something very well.
• Ask someone else to read it through for you. It’s best not to ask
another student from your course to do this – ask a friend or family
member who isn’t an expert on the subject. That way, they will be
able to tell you whether you have explained things clearly as they
won’t have too much prior knowledge of the topic.
• If you’ve managed to leave enough time between finishing writing
the draft and proofreading it, you might find that extra points have
occurred to you which you now want to add. The intervening time
gives your brain the opportunity to process what you have written,
and possibly to identify any gaps in your information.
• Don’t ignore this stage of the assignment-writing process! You
must read through your work before you hand it in to make sure
that it answers the question and makes sense.
6
15.The final edit
After proofreading, you might want to make a few additions or changes,
move sections around or even completely re-write parts of the assignment.
Before you hand it in, have one final look through it and make sure to
check the following:
• Your grammar
• Your spelling (try the F7 key if using Microsoft Word – make
sure it is set to UK English and don’t rely on it to pick everything
up correctly as it is not a substitute for proofreading, but it is a
useful tool)
• Have you answered the question or done what you were asked
to do?
• Is the assignment the right length?
• Have you used the correct font size and style, line spacing and
so on (check whether you have been given instructions about
this – not all Schools have the same rules)
• When you’ve checked all this, the assignment is finished. Don’t
worry about it any more and hand it in – it’ll probably never be
absolutely perfect, so don’t keep adding and changing
unnecessarily.
16.Don’t ignore your feedback
Your feedback is there to help you. It will show you what you have done
well, and what you need to work on for next time. It’s particularly easy to
ignore your feedback when you have passed an assignment – you might
breathe a sigh of relief and put the feedback in a folder, never to be looked
at again. However, it’s important to read it and to learn from it, to ensure
you’re doing the right things in future assignments.
You may find other guides in our Study Basics range useful when writing your
assignments. Have a look at our Referencing and Critical Analysis leaflets.
7
Some ‘process words’ or ‘action words’ you might encounter
Compare Look for similarities and differences between two given themes.
You could reach a conclusion about which is preferable and
justify this clearly.
Contrast Set two things in opposition to bring out the differences.
Criticise Judge the merits of a theory or opinion on a given subject.
Always back this up with evidence or reasoning.
Describe Give a detailed account of something.
Discuss Explain an issue and then give both sides and consider any
implications.
Explain Give details about why and how something is.
Evaluate Make an appraisal of the value or effectiveness of something.
Has it proved useful to the discussion or argument?
Justify Show grounds for decisions or conclusions you have made and
answer any objections likely to be made about them.
Outline Give the main features or general principles of a subject,
omitting minor details and emphasizing structure and
arrangement.
Summarise Give a concise, clear explanation of something, presenting the
chief factors and leaving out minor details.
Mathematical words can be different
Write down
State Write down without justification.
Give
Find
Determine
Calculate
Explain You are required to show your workings out.
Derive
Evaluate
Solve
Prove
Show Justify each step and provide a convincing argument or
Explain explanation.
Deduce

من جميل ما نقرأ و نستفيد ..

رغم طول المداخلة ( مداخلة قرايين) ..

Common spelling mistakes
There are many words in the English language which are commonly misspelt.
Some of these are homophones (words which sound alike but are spelled
differently and have different meanings), and others are a result of confusion
between verbs (‘doing words’) and nouns (‘things’). Some are simply difficult
to spell. It’s important to check your spelling and to be accurate in your
academic work, and when applying for jobs. This guide will show you how to
avoid some of the most common errors.
Some words which people often get mixed up
Access / excess
I was given access to the files.
He always drinks to excess.
Accept / except
I think I will accept the job offer.
I don’t like any vegetables, except carrots.
Practice / practise
I was late getting to football practice. (noun)
I am going to practise the piano today. (verb)
Licence / license
I have a driving licence. (noun)
I am licensed to run the pub. (verb)
Advice / advise
He gave me some really good advice. (noun)
I advise you to think carefully about this. (verb)
Their / they’re / there
The students sat their exam today.
If they don’t hurry up, they’re going to be late. (contraction / short for ‘they are’)
There were three dogs in the park.
The park is over there.
You’re / your
You’re going to be late. (you are)
Don’t forget your keys. (the keys belong to you)
Who’s / whose
Who’s going to the party tonight? (who is)
Whose book is this? (who does the book belong to?)
Affect / effect
How did that affect you? (verb)
What were the effects of that? (noun)
3
Every day / everyday
I drive to work every day. (two words)
I didn’t dress up, I just wore my everyday clothes.
Were / where / wear / ware / we’re
There were three dogs in the park.
Where did you get that jacket?
Are you going to wear your new jacket?
He had a market stall, selling his wares.
We’re going to the park. (contraction / short for ‘we are’)
Cite / site / sight
I am going to cite this author’s work in my essay.
That’s the site of the new hospital.
He has sight problems and has to see an eye specialist.
Principle / principal
The scientific principle states that... (the scientific rule)
The principal finding was that… (the main or most important finding)
Assure / insure / ensure
I assure you, these figures are correct.
This policy insures you against accidental damage.
Please ensure that the windows are locked before you leave.
Whether / weather
I don’t know whether to accept the job offer.
What’s the weather like in Salford today?
Some common misspellings
Academic Only one C, one D and one M.
Accommodation Needs two Cs and two Ms.
Achievement I before E.
Across Only one C.
A lot This is two words, not one (not ‘alot’).
Argument There’s no E after the U.
Definitely There is no A in definite or definitely
Embarrassing Two Rs and two Ss.
Necessary Only one C, but two Ss. Ends –ary, not –ery.
Occurred Two Cs and two Rs.
Receive E before I after a C.
Separate With an A, not an E after the P.
Successful Two Cs.
Truly There’s no E.
Until Only one L.
Writing One T, not two (‘written’ has two Ts).
4
Apostrophes
The apostrophe is a widely misused punctuation mark, and it’s important that
you use it correctly in your academic work and job applications. Apostrophes
are used to show that somebody owns something, and to show where letters
have been omitted from a word. The basics of how to use apostrophes in
these circumstances are explained below.
To show possession of something
The apostrophe is used to show when someone or something owns or
possesses something else, such as in these examples:
• The cat’s tail was very long. (the tail belongs to the cat)
• The boy’s bicycle was leaning against the wall. (the bicycle belongs to
the boy)
• Helen’s computer was switched off. (the computer belongs to Helen)
• I was late getting to Steve’s birthday party. (the party belonged to
Steve)
If something belongs to more than one individual, the apostrophe will be
placed after the plural ‘s’, like this:
• The girls’ skirts were rather short. (the skirts belonging to several girls)
• The dogs’ tails wagged. (the tails belonging to several dogs)
• The Smiths’ house was on the market. (the house belonging to the
Smith family).
If the ‘owner’ is already pluralised, such as in the examples below, the
apostrophe is placed like this:
• The children’s paintings were very good. (the paintings belonging to
several children, ‘children’ already being plural)
• The women’s group met every Monday night. (‘women’ is already a
plural)
Missing letters (contractions)
Apostrophes are also used to denote missing letters, such as:
• We didn’t get there in time. (did not)
• He hasn’t been there before. (has not)
• It really isn’t necessary. (is not)
• The shop won’t be open this early. (will not).
• I don’t know why, but I haven’t been invited. (do not, have not)
• He’d been waiting all day for the phone to ring. (he had)
• Julie said she’d meet us at the cinema after work. (she would)
Note that you should not use contractions or shortened versions like this in
academic writing or in job applications. Always use the full words.
5
Its / it’s
This is the exception to the rule, and the only instance where an apostrophe
isn’t used to show possession of something. You do use an apostrophe,
however, to show missing letters.
• The dog wagged its tail. (the tail belongs to the dog)
• I sat in the car and revved its engine. (the engine belongs to the car)
• It’s really warm outside today. (contraction / short form of ‘it is’)
• I can’t believe it’s Friday already. (short form of ‘it is’)
Common errors with apostrophes
The most common error is the insertion of an apostrophe in a plural. For
example:
• Carrot’s and pea’s (the correct form is: carrots and peas)
• In the 1980’s (this does not need an apostrophe, as it is a plural: in the
nineteen eighties. The correct form is: 1980s)
• I handed CV’s in to three companies. (again, this does not need an
apostrophe as it is a plural. The correct way of writing this is: I handed
CVs in to three companies)
• I have eight GCSE’s (the correct version is: I have eight GCSEs).
Another common error is to miss apostrophes out entirely:
• I borrowed Claires hat for the wedding. (Should be: I borrowed
Claire’s hat for the wedding)
• I wont be going out tonight, Ive got to finish my essay. (Should be: I
won’t be going out tonight, I’ve got to finish my essay)
And finally…
Don’t forget to use your computer’s spellchecker (accessed by pressing the
F7 key in Word documents). This is a useful tool which picks up spelling and
grammatical errors. However, it won’t find everything, and is not a substitute
for proof reading your assignment or job application. For example, look at the
sentence below:
I attended the pear teaching session.
The writer means to say, “I attended the peer teaching session”. However, as
‘pear’ is a real word, the computer is unable to pick this error up. So, if you
have used the incorrect word, but it is still an actual word, spellchecker won’t
be able to help you. It cannot understand the words themselves or the context
in which you are using them. You must proof read your work!
If you struggle with spelling and grammar, you might find the factsheets
and self-tests on the BBC’s Skillswise website useful.
Visit www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise for more information.

من جميل ما نقرأ و نستفيد ..
رغم طول المداخلة ( مداخلة قرايين) ..

أخي معتصم .. تشكر سيدي
فقط قصدت وحدة الموضوع .. لذلك استطلت .


تقديري

[left]Speed reading
Speed reading is using simple techniques to help you read faster and gain an
overview of an entire book, paper or journal article in a short amount of time.
Most people read approximately 277 words per minute. Using speed reading
techniques you can increase this to 744 words per minutes or more!
Speed reading is a useful technique to master, particularly for the times when
you are faced with a mountain of reading and are not sure where to start! By
gaining an overview of each text, you will be able to make an informed
decision about which texts to concentrate on and read more thoroughly, and
which ones are not so important. This, in turn, means you use your time more
effectively.
How do I learn to speed read?
This handout will give you some of the key tools and techniques that you need
to speed read. It is recommended that you practise them to make them feel
natural. Practising the techniques for about 15 minutes a day for 6 weeks or
so will be enough to embed the techniques and make them second-nature.
Speed Reading Techniques
1. Chunking
Reading one word at a time slows you down
Reading a phrase at a time is very easy
Most people read one word at a time. This guarantees understanding but is
slow. Reading one word at a time quickly often results in understanding being
lost.
The solution is to 'chunk' the text into blocks and read a phrase at a time
instead of single words. This is actually very simple - the English language is
made up of phrases, many of which repeat themselves. In your field of study,
there are probably lots of phrases that are often used and that over time, you
will become familiar with, therefore it makes sense to read these phrases in
chunk rather than single words.
2. Pacers
Eye muscles move in a much smoother way when they have something to
follow. Smooth movement of the eyes will enable you to read faster, therefore
to increase your reading speed, it’s helpful to give your eyes something to
follow as they read down the page - a guide or a pacer.
Suitable pacers are: bookmarks; rulers; pencils; fingers; and hands. When
using a pacer you can follow either ahead, behind, underneath of above the
pacer. Many people go either ahead or underneath.
Pacer tips:
Try different pacers until you find the one you are comfortable with.
Try out your preferred choice of pacer with each hand.
Try to keep an even motion across the page - don't pause or stop.
Some Pacing Techniques:
• Guide pacer across the page in an 's' shape
• Guide pacer across the page in a 'z' shape
• Pull pacer down the page vertically
3. Reading Strategy
In order to successfully gain an overview of the text you are reading, you need
a reading strategy - what are you trying to get out of the book?
A successful strategy that you can use is:
1. Write objectives for reading the material - why are you reading this book?
What do you want to know?
2. Read the introduction
3. Read the summary/conclusion
4. For journal articles – read the ‘abstract’.
5. Scan over every page for about 2 seconds - be disciplined! Pay attention
to diagrams, bullet points - a picture can tell a thousand words.
6. Revisit your objective - what don't you need to read? Which part/chapter is
most important?
7. Speed read the relevant sections
8. If you have met your objective, stop. If not, take a break.
9. Repeat the steps if necessary
By following these steps you should be able to get an overview of the
book/paper in a short amount of time, and then go back and focus on the
sections that are useful to you in more detail.